Abstract
Tests of the behavior of laboratory animals are widely used for evaluating psychotropic drugs, but the interpretation of behavioral changes and the process of extrapolation to man continue to pose considerable problems. It is far easier to evaluate drugs that act primarily on “physical” systems; cardiovascular or respiratory effects, antibiotic or antiinflammatory actions lend themselves more readily to comparative assessments. Measures and responses can be specified with greater precision, and it is also possible to give roughly equal weightings to the information that is obtained from different species, including man (White et al., 1973).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Ahlenius, S., and Engel, J., 1971, Behavioral effects of Haloperidol after tyrosine hydroxylase inhibition, Eur. J. Pharmacol.15:187–192.
Akiskal, H. S., and Mckinney, W. T., 1973, Depressive disorders: Toward a unified hypothesis, Science182:20–29.
Andén, N. E., 1966, On the function of the nigro-neostriatal pathway, in: Mechanisms of Release of Biogenic Amines (U.S. Von Euler, S. Roseli, and B. Unvas, eds.), pp. 357–359, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Anderson, O. D., and Parmenter, R., 1941, A long-term study of the experimental neurosis in the sheep and the dog, Psychosom. Med. Monogr. 2, Nos. 3 and 4.
Angrist, B. M., Shopshin, B., and Gershon, S., 1971, Comparative psychotomimetic effects of stereoisomers of amphetamine, Nature London234:152–154.
Anlezark, G. M., Arbuthnott, G. W., Christie, J. E., and Crow, T. J., 1971, The role of cerebral dopamine in the action of psychotropic drugs, Br. J. Pharmacol.41:406.
Ayd, F. J., and Blackwell, B. (eds.), 1970, Discoveries in Biological Psychiatry, Lippincott, Philadelphia.
Barry, H., III, and Buckley, J. P., 1966, Drug effects on animal performance and the stress syndrome, J. Pharm. Sci.55:1159–1183.
Baum, M., 1966, Rapid extinction of an avoidance response following a period of response prevention in the avoidance apparatus, Psychol. Rep.18:59–64.
Baum, M., 1968, Efficacy of response prevention (flooding) in facilitating the extinction of an avoidance response in rats. The effect of overtraining the response, Behav. Res. Ther.6:197–203.
Baum, M., 1969, Extinction of an avoidance response motivated by intense fear: Social facilitation of the action of response prevention (flooding) in rats, Behav. Res. Ther.7:57–62.
Baum, M., 1970, Extinction of avoidance responding through response prevention (flooding), Psychol. Bull.74:276–284.
Baum, M., and Leclerc, R., 1974, Irrelevant stress experience versus response prevention (flooding) interpolated between avoidance acquisition and extinction in rats, J. Psychiatr. Res.10:307–314.
Beach, F. A., 1950, The Snark was a Boojum, Amer. Psychol.5:115–124.
Bird, E. D., Mackay, A. V. P., Rayner, C. N., and Iversen, L. L., 1973, Reduced GAD activity of post-mortem brains in Huntington’s chorea, Lancet1:1090–1092.
Blackman, D. E., 1972, Conditioned anxiety and operant behaviour, in: Schedule Effects. Drugs, Drinking and Aggression (R. M. Gilbert and J. D. Keehn, eds.), pp. 26–49, University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
Bolles, R. C., 1970, Species-specific defence reactions and avoidance learning, Psychol. Rev.77:32–48.
Bond, A. J., James, D. C., and Lader, M. H., 1974, Physiological and psychological measures in anxious patients, Psychol. Med.4:364–373.
Bowlby, J., 1952, Maternal Care and Mental Health, WHO Monogr. Ser., No. 2, Geneva.
Bowlby, J., 1969, Psychopathology of anxiety: The role of affectional bonds, in: Studies of Anxiety (M. H. Lader, ed.), pp. 80–96, Headley Bros., Kent.
Breese, G., Prange, A., Howard, J., Lipton, M., Mckinney, W., Bowman, R., and Bushnell, P., 1972, 3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol: Excretion and behavioural changes in rat and monkey after central sympathectomy with 6-hydroxydopamine, Nature London240:286, 287.
Bridges, P. K., 1974, Recent physiological studies of stress and anxiety, Biol. Psychiatry8:95–112.
Broadhurst, P. L., 1960, Abnormal animal behaviour, in: Handbook of Abnormal Psychology, 1st Ed. (H.J. Eysenck, ed.), pp. 726–763, Pitman, London.
Broadhurst, P. L., 1967, The biometrical analysis of behavioural inheritance, Sci. Progr. Oxford55:123–139.
Broadhurst, P. L., 1973, Animal studies bearing on abnormal behaviour, in: Handbook of Abnormal Psychology, 2nd Ed. (H.J. Eysenck, ed.), pp. 721–754, Pitman, London.
Bunney, B. S., and Aghajanian, G. K., 1974, Differentiation between neuroleptic antipsychotic properties and side effects by subgroups of dopaminergic neurones, Psychopharmacol. Bull.10(4): 17, 18.
Bunney, B. S., Walters, J. R., Roth, R. H., and Aghajanian, K., 1973, Dopaminergic neurones: Effect of antipsychotic drugs and amphetamines on single cell activity, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.185:560–571.
Cappell, H., Ginsberg, R., and Webster, C. D., 1972, Amphetamine and conditioned anxiety, Br. J. Pharmacol.45:525–531.
Carlsson, A., and Lindqvist, M., 1963, Effect of chlorpromazine or haloperidol on formation of 3-methoxytyramine and normetanephrine in mouse brain, Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol.20:140–144.
Carlsson, A., Roos, B. E., Walinder, J., and Skott, A., 1973, Further studies on the mechanism of antipsychotic action: Potentiation by α-methyltyrosine of thioridazine effects in chronic schizophrenics, J. Neural Transm.34:125–132.
Carroll, B. J., and Sharp, P. T., 1971, Rubidium and lithium: Opposite effects on amine mediated excitement, Science172:1355–1357.
Cook, S. W., 1939, The production of “experimental neurosis” in the white rat, Psychosom. Med.1:293–308.
Costall, B., and Naylor, R. J., 1974, Stereotyped and circling behaviour induced by dopaminergic agonists after lesions of the midbrain raphe nuclei, Eur. J. Pharmacol.29:206–222.
Costall, B., and Naylor, R. J., 1975, A comparison of circling models for the detection of Anti-Parkinson activity, Psychopharmacologia41:57–64.
Coyle, J. T., and Snyder, S. H., 1969, Catecholamine uptake by synaptosomes in homogenates of rat brain: Stereospecificity in different areas, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.170:221–231.
Crow, T. J., 1971, The relationship between lesion site, dopamine neurones and turning behaviour in the rat, Exp. Neurol.32:247–255.
Crow, T. J., 1972, Catecholamine-containing neurones and electrical self-stimulation: 1. A review of some data, Psychol. Med.2:414–421.
Crow, T. J., 1973, Catecholamine-containing neurones and electrical self-stimulation: 2. A theoretical interpretation and some psychiatric implications, Psychol. Med.3:66–73.
Crow, T. J., and Gillbe, C., 1973, Dopamine antagonism and antischizophrenic potency of neuroleptic drugs, Nature London245:27, 28.
Crow, T. J., and Gillbe, C., 1974, Brain dopamine and behaviour: A critical analysis of the relationship between dopamine antagonism and the therapeutic efficacy of neuroleptic drugs, J. Psychiatr. Res.11:163–172.
Dahlström, A., and Fuxe, K., 1964, Evidence for the existence of monoamine-containing neurones in the central nervous system, Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 23262:5–55.
Davies, C., Sanger, D. J., Steinberg, H., Tomkiewicz, M., and U’Prichard, D., 1974, Lithium and α-methyl-p-tyrosine prevent “manic” activity in rodents, Psychopharmacologia36:263–274.
Davis, H., 1968, Conditioned suppression: A survey of the literature, Psychonomic Monogr. Suppl. 2, 283–291.
Denenberg, V. H., 1968, A consideration of the usefulness of the critical period hypothesis as applied to the stimulation of rodents in infancy, in: Early Experience and Behavior (G. Newton and S. Levine, eds.), pp. 142–167, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.
Dews, P. B., 1966, Conditioned behavior as substratum for behavioral effects of drugs, in: Psychiatric Drugs (P. Solomon, ed.), pp. 22–31, Grune & Stratton, New York.
Dews, P. B., 1973, The behavioural context of addiction, in: Psychic Dependence (L. Goldberg and F. Hoffmeister, eds.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Doggett, N. S., Reno, H., and Spencer, P. S. J., 1975a, Possible involvement of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the antidepressant activity of narcotic analgesics, Neuropharmacology14:81–84.
Doggett, N. S., Reno, H., and Spencer, P. S. J., 1975b, The effect of drugs with antidepressant activity upon the hypothermia and behavioural depression induced in mice by pimozide or centrally administered noradrenaline, Neuropharmacology14:85–90.
Ellinwood, E. H., Sudilovsky, A., and Nelson, L., 1972, Behavioural analysis of chronic amphetamine intoxication, Biol. Psychiatry4:215–230.
English, H. B., 1929, Three cases of the “conditioned fear response,” J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol.34:221–225.
Estes, W. K., and Skinner, B. F., 1941, Some quantitative properties of anxiety, J. Exp. Psychol.21:390–400.
Eysenck, H. J., 1969, Psychological aspects of anxiety, in: Studies of Anxiety, Br. J. Psychiatry Special Publ. No. 3, (M. H. Lader, ed.), pp. 7–20, Headley Bros., Kent.
Fairbairn, W. R. D., 1952, Psychoanalytic Studies of the Personality, Tavistock Publications, London.
Falk, J. L., 1961, Production of polydipsia in normal rats by an intermittent food schedule, Science133:195, 196.
Ferris, R. M., Tang, F. L. M., and Maxwell, R. A., 1972, A comparison of the capacities of isomers of amphetamine, deoxypipradrol and methylphenidate to inhibit the uptake of tritiated catecholamines into rat cerebral cortex slices, synaptosomal preparations of rat cerebral cortex, hypothalamus and striatum and into adrenergic nerves of rabbit aorta, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.181:407–416.
Freud, S., 1917, Mourning and melancholia, in: Standard Edition of the Complete Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 14, Hogarth Press, London (1957).
Garcia, J., and Koelling, R. A., 1966, Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning, Psychon. Sci.4:123–126.
Geller, I., Kulak, J. T., and Seifter, J., 1962, The effects of chlordiazepoxide and chlorpromazine on a punishment discrimination, Psychopharmacologia25:112–116.
Gilbert, R. M., and Keehn, J. D. (eds.), 1972, Schedule Effects. Drugs, Drinking and Aggression, University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
Grahame-Smith, D. G., and Green, A. R., 1974a, The role of brain dopamine in the hyperactivity syndrome produced in rats after administration of L-tryptophan and a monoamine oxidase inhibitor, Br. J. Pharmacol.50:442, 443.
Grahame-Smith, D. G., and Green, A. R., 1974b, The role of brain 5-hydroxytryptamine in the hyperactivity produced in rats by lithium and monoamine oxidase inhibition, Br. J. Pharmacol.50:443, 444.
Gray, J., 1971, The Psychology of Fear and Stress, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.
Green, A. R., and Grahame-Smith, D. G., 1974, TRH potentiates behavioural changes following increased brain 5-hydroxytryptamine accumulation in rats, Nature London251:524–526.
Guntrip, H., 1961, Personality Structure and Human Interaction, Hogarth Press, London.
Harlow, H. F., and Harlow, M. K., 1971, Psychopathology in monkeys, in: Experimental Psychopathology: Research and Theory (H. D. Kimmel, ed.), pp. 203–229, Academic Press, New York.
Harris, J. E., and Baldessarini, R. J., 1973, Uptake of [3H]-catecholamines by homogenates of rat corpus striatum and cerebral cortex: Effects of amphetamine analogues, Neuropharmacology12:669–679.
Hediger, H., 1955, Studies of the Psychology and Behaviour of Animals in Zoos and Circuses, Butterworths, London.
Herz, A., 1960, Drugs and the conditioned avoidance response, Int. Rev. Neurobiol.2:229–277.
Hill, R. T., and Tedeschi, D. H., 1971, Animal testing and screening procedures in evaluating psychotropic drugs, in: An Introduction to Psychopharmacology (R. H. Rech and K. E. Moore, eds.), pp. 237–288, Raven Press, New York.
Hinde, R. A., 1970, Animal Behavior: A Synthesis of Ethology and Comparative Psychology, 2nd Ed., pp. 333–349, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Hinde, R. A., 1974, Mother/infant relations in infant monkeys, in: Ethology and Psychiatry (N. F. White, ed.), pp. 29–46, University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
Hinde, R. A., and Spencer-Booth, Y., 1971, Effects of brief separation from mother on rhesus monkeys, Science173:111–118.
Hinde, R. A., and White, L. E., 1974, Dynamics of a relationship: Rhesus mother-infant ventro-ventral contact, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.86:8–23.
Hiroto, D. S., and Seligman, M. E. P., 1975, Generality of learned helplessness in man, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.31:311–327.
Hodos, W., and Campbell, C. B. G., 1969, Scala Naturae: Why there is no theory in comparative psychology, Psychol. Rev.76:337–350.
Hökfelt, T., Ljungdahl, A., Fuxe, K., and Johansson, O., 1974, Dopamine nerve terminals in the rat limbic cortex: Aspects of the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia, Science184:177–179.
Janowski, D. S., Davis, J. M., and El-Yousef, M. K., 1974, Effects of intravenous d-amphetamine, l-amphetamine and methylphenidate in schizophrenics, Psychopharmacol. Bull.10(3): 15–24.
Janssen, P. A. J., 1964, Screening tests and prediction from animals to man, in: Animal Behaviour and Drug Action (H. Steinberg, A. V. S. de Reuck and J. Knight, eds.), pp. 264–268, Churchill, London.
Kamin, L. J., Brimer, C. J., and Black, A. H., 1963, Conditioned suppression as a monitor of fear of the CS in the course of avoidance training, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.56:497–501.
Kaplan, R., 1963, Rat basal resistance level under stress and non-stress conditions, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.56:775–777.
Kaplan, S., and Kaplan, R., 1962, Skin resistance recording in the unrestrained rat, Science138:1403, 1404.
Katzev, R., 1967, Extinguishing avoidance responses as a function of delayed warning-signal termination, J. Exp. Psychol.75:339–344.
Kaufman, C. I., 1974, Mother/infant relations in monkeys and human. A reply to Professor Hinde, in: Ethology and Psychiatry (N. F. White, ed.), pp. 47–68, University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
Keller, H. H., Bartholini, G., and Pletscher, A., 1974, Enhancement of cerebral noradrenaline turnover by thyrotropin-releasing hormone, Nature London248:528, 529.
Kendell, R. E., 1970, Relationship between aggression and depression, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry22:308–318.
Kendell, R. E., 1974, The stability of psychiatric diagnoses, Br. J. Psychiatry124:352–358.
Kimble, G. A., 1961, Hilgard and Marquis’ Conditioning and Learning, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.
Klein, D., 1975, Alleviation of depression and learned helplessness in man, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania (cited by: SELIGMAN, 1975).
Köhler, W., 1927, The Mentality of Apes, pp. 282–286, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, London.
Kornetsky, C., and Eliasson, M., 1969, Reticular stimulation and chlorpromazine: An animal model for schiphrenic overarousal, Science165:1273, 1274.
Kumar, R., 1971a, Extinction of fear I: Effects of amylobarbitone and dexamphetamine given separately and in combination on fear and exploratory behaviour in rats, Psychopharmacologia19:163–187.
Kumar, R., 1971b, Extinction of fear II: Effects of chlordiazepoxide and chlorpromazine on fear and exploratory behaviour in rats, Psychopharmacologia19:297–312.
Kumar, R., Stolerman, I. P., and Steinberg, H., 1970, Psychopharmacology, Annu. Rev. Psychol.21:595–628.
Lader, M. H., 1972, The nature of anxiety, Br. J. Psychiatry121:481–491.
Lader, M. H., and Marks, I. M., 1971, Clinical Anxiety, Heinemann, London.
Lancet, 1974, Leading article, 1:298, 299.
Lasagna, L., 1964, On evaluating drug therapy: The nature of the evidence, in: Drugs in Our Society (P. Talalay, ed.), pp. 91–105, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.
Lasagna, L., 1971, Decision processes in establishing the efficacy and safety of psychotropic agents, in: Principles and Problems in Establishing the Efficacy of Psychotropic Drugs (J. Levine, B. C. Schiele, and L. Bouthilet, eds.), pp. 29–50, U.S. Public Health Services Publication No. 2138.
Lederhendler, I., and Baum, M., 1970, Mechanical facilitation of the action of response prevention (flooding) in rats, Behav. Res. Ther.8:43–48.
Lessac, M., and Solomon, R. L., 1969, Effects of early isolation on the later adaptive behavior of beagles: A methodological demonstration, Dev. Psychol.1:14–25.
Lester, D., 1972, Self-mutilating behaviour, Psychol. Bull.78:119–128.
Lewis, A., 1934, Melancholia: A clinical survey of depressive states, J. Ment. Sci.80:1–42.
Liddell, H. S., 1938, The experimental neurosis and the problem of mental disorder, Amer. J. Psychiatry94:1035–1043.
Liddell, H. S., 1956, Emotional Hazards in Animals and Man, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.
Lockard, R. B., 1971, Reflections on the fall of comparative psychology: Is there a message for us all?, Amer. Psychol.26:168–179.
Lorenz, K., 1952, King Solomon’s Ring, Methuen, London.
Lorenz, K., 1966, On Aggression, Methuen, London.
Lyons, H. A., 1972, Depressive illness and aggression in Belfast, Br. Med. J.1:342–344.
Maier, N. R. F., 1949, Frustration: The Study of Behavior Without a Goal, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Marks, I. M., 1969, Fears and Phobias, Heinemann, London.
Marks, I. M., 1972, Perspective on flooding, Semin. Psychiatry4:129–138.
Marks, I. M., 1973, Research in neurosis: A selective review. 1. Causes and courses, Psychol. Med.3:436–454.
Marks, I. M., 1974, Research in neurosis: A selective review. 2. Treatment, Psychol. Med.4:89–109.
Marks, V., 1966, Laboratory investigation of drug addiction, Br. J. Addict.61:291–294.
Marzulli, F. N., and Callahan, J. F., 1957, The capacity of certain common laboratory animals to sweat, J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc.131(2):80, 81.
Masserman, J. H., 1943, Behavior and Neurosis, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Mckinney, W. T., 1974, Animal models in psychiatry, Perspect. Biol. Med.17:429–561.
Mckinney, W. T., and Bunney, W. E., 1969, Animal models of depression. 1. Review of evidence: Implications for research, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry21:240–248.
Mckinney, W. T., Eising, R. G., Moran, E. C., Suomi, S. J., and Harlow, H. F., 1971, Effects of reserpine on the social behaviour of rhesus monkeys, Dis. Nerv. Syst.32:735–741.
Mckinney, W. T., Suomi, S. J., and Harlow, H. F., 1972, Repetitive peer separations of juvenile-age rhesus monkeys, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry27:200–203.
Melges, F. T., and Bowlby, J., 1969, Types of hopelessness in psychopathological process, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry20:690–699.
Meltzer, H. Y., Sachar, E. J., and Frantz, A. G., 1974, Serum prolactin levels in newly admitted schizophrenic patients, Psychopharm. Bull.10(3): 14, 15.
Meyer-Holzapfel, M., 1968, Abnormal behaviour in zoo animals, in: Abnormal Behavior in Animals (M. W. Fox, ed.), pp. 476–503, W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia.
Millenson, J. R., and Leslie, J., 1974, The conditioned emotional response (CER) as a baseline for the study of anti-anxiety drugs, Neuropharmacology13:1–9.
Miller, N. E., 1966, Some animal experiments pertinent to the problem of combining psychotherapy with drug therapy, Compr. Psychiatry7:1–12.
MRC Brain Metabolism Unit. 1972, Modified amine hypothesis for the aetiology of affective illness, Lancet 2(7777):573–578.
Öhmann, A., Eriksson, A., and Olofsson, C., 1975, One trial learning and superior resistance to extinction of autonomic responses conditioned to potentially phobic stimuli, J. Comp. Physiol Psychol88:619–627.
Overmier, J. B., and Seligman, M. E. P., 1967, Effects of inescapable shock on subsequent escape and avoidance learning, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.63:28–33.
Pavlov, I. P., 1927, Conditioned Reflexes, Oxford University Press, London.
Perry, T. L., Hansen, S., and Kloster, M., 1973, Huntington’s chorea. Deficiency of γ-aminobutyric acid in the brain, N. Engl. J. Med.288:337–342.
Pinel, J. P., Malsbury, C. W., and Corcoran, M. E., 1971, The incubation effect in rats: Skin resistance changes after footshock, Physiol. Behav.6:111–114.
Prange, A., 1974, Behavioural effects of hypothalamic polypeptides in animals and man, Psychopharm. Bull.10(4): 11–14.
Price, J. S., 1967, The dominance hierarchy and the evolution of mental illness, Lancet2:243–246.
Price, J. S., 1968, The genetics of depressive behaviour, in: Recent Advances in Affective Disorders (A. Coppen and A. Walk, eds.), pp. 37–54, Headley Bros., Kent.
Pycock, C. J., Donaldson, I.MacG., and Marsden, C. D., 1975, Circling behaviour produced by unilateral lesions in the region of the locus coeruleus in rats, Brain Res.97:317–329.
Randrup, A., and Munkvad, I., 1967, Stereotyped activities produced by amphetamine in several animal species and man, Psychopharmacologia11:300–310.
Randrup, A., and Munkvad, I., 1972, Evidence indicating an association between schizophrenia and dopaminergic hyperactivity in the brain, Orthomol. Psychiatry1:2–7.
Redmond, D., Maas, J., Kling, A., Graham, C., and Dekirmenjian, H., 1971, Social behaviour of monkeys selectively depleted of monoamines, Science174:428–430.
Roth, M., and Kerr, T. A., 1970, Diagnosis of the reactive depressive illness, in: Modern Trends in Psychological Medicine, Vol. 2 (J. H. Price, ed.), pp. 165–199, Butterworths, London.
Russell, R. W., 1950, The comparative study of “conflict” and “experimental neurosis,” Br. J. Psychol.41:95–108.
Russell, R. W., et al., 1962, Behavioral research in preclinical psychopharmacology: Issues of design and techniques. U.S. Public Health Services Publication No. 968.
Rylander, G., 1969, Clinical and medico-criminological aspects of addition to central stimulating drugs, in: Abuse of Central Stimulants (F. S. Sjöqvist and M. Tottie, eds.), pp. 251–274, Alqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm.
Sainsbury, P., 1968, Suicide and depression, in: Recent Advances in Affective Disorders (A. Coppen and A. Walk, eds.), pp. 1–14, Headley Bros., Kent.
Sandison, R. A., 1972, Depression: Illness, social disease or natural state? Lancet1:1227–1229.
Saul, L. J., 1962, Psychosocial medicine and observation of animals, Psychosom. Med.24:58–61.
Schaller, G. B., 1965, Behavioral comparisons of the apes, in: Primate Behavior: Field Studies of Monkeys and Apes (I. de Vore, ed.), pp. 474–481, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.
Seligman, M. E. P., 1970, On the generality of the laws of learning, Psychol. Rev.77:406–418.
Seligman, M. E. P., 1971, Phobias and preparedness, Behav. Ther.2:307–320.
Seligman, M. E. P., 1975, Helplessness, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.
Seligman, M. E. P., and Beagley, G., 1975, Learned helplessness in the rat, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.88:534–541.
Seligman, M. E. P., and Groves, D., 1970, Non-transient learned helplessness, Psychon. Sci.19:191, 192.
Seligman, M. E. P., and Hager, J. L. (eds.), 1972, Biological Boundaries of Learning, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.
Seligman, M. E. P., and Maier, S. F., 1967, Failure to escape traumatic shock, J. Exp. Psychol.74:1–9.
Seligman, M. E. P., Maier, S. F., and Geer, J., 1968, The alleviation of learned helplessness in the dog, J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol.73:256–262.
Seligman, M. E. P., Maier, S. F., and Solomon, R. L., 1971, Unpredictable and uncontrollable aversive events, in: Aversive Conditioning and Learning (F. R. Brush, ed.), pp. 347–400, Academic Press, New York.
Seligman, M. E. P., Rosellini, R. A., and Kozak, M. J., 1975, Learned helplessness in the rat: Time course, immunisation and reversibility, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.88:542–547.
Senay, E. C., 1966, Toward an animal model of depression: A study of separation behaviour in dogs, J. Psychiatr. Res.4:65–71.
Seward, J. P., 1969, The role of conflict in experimental neurosis, in: Punishment and Aversive Behavior (B. A. Campbell and R. M. Church, eds.), pp. 421–448, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.
Slater, E., and Shields, J., 1969, Genetical aspects of anxiety, in: Studies of Anxiety (M. H. Lader, ed.), Br. J. Psychiatry Special Publication No. 3, pp. 62–71, Headley Bros., Kent.
Snyder, S. H., 1972, Catecholamines in the brain as mediators of amphetamine psychosis, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry27:169–179.
Snyder, S. H., 1973, Amphetamine psychosis: A “model” schizophrenia mediated by catecholamines, Amer. J. Psychiatry130:61–67.
Snyder, S. H., Banerjee, S. P., Yamamura, H. I., and Greenberg, D., 1974, Drugs, neurotransmitters and schizophrenia, Science184:1243–1253.
Spitz, R., and Wolf, K. M., 1946, Anaclitic depression, Psychoanal. Study Child, 2:313–342.
Stein, L., and Wise, C. D., 1971, Possible etiology of schizophrenia: Progressive Damage to the noradrenergic reward system by 6-hydroxydopamine, Science171:1032–1036.
Stein, L., Wise, C. D., and Berger, B. D., 1972, Noradrenergic reward mechanisms, recovery of function, and schizophrenia, in: The Chemistry of Mood, Motivation, and Memory (J. L. McGaugh, ed.), pp. 81–103, Plenum Press, New York.
Sweeney, D. R., Tinling, D. C., and Schmale, A. H., 1970, Differentiation of the “giving-up” affects; helplessness and hopelessness, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry23:378–382.
Ungerstedt, U., 1971a, Stereotaxic mapping of the monamine pathways in the rat brain, Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 367, 1–48.
Ungerstedt, U., 1971b, Striatal dopamine release after amphetamine or nerve degeneration revealed by rotational behaviour, Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 367, 49–68.
Ungerstedt, U., 1971c, Post-synaptic supersensitivity after 6-hydroxydopamine induced degeneration of the nigrostriatal system, Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 367, 69–93.
van Eick, A. J., and Bock, J., 1974, The effect of atropine and methylatropine on the sweat secretion of unrestrained mice, measured with radioactive saline, Eur. J. Pharmacol.27:263–265.
van Lawick-Goodall, J., 1973, (cited in: SELIGMAN, 1975, pp. 174 and 175).
van Rossum, J. M., 1966, The significance of dopamine receptor blockade for the mechanism of action of neuroleptic drugs, Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther.160:492–494.
von Baeyer, W., 1969, Social and political aspects of anxiety, in: Studies of Anxiety (M. H. Lader, ed.), pp. 93–98, Headley Bros., Kent.
Watson, J. B., and Rayner, R., 1920, Conditioned emotional reactions, J. Exp. Psychol.3:1–14.
Weiskrantz, L., 1968a, Introduction, in: Analysis of Behavioral Change (L. Weiskrantz, ed.), pp. 1–3, Harper & Row, New York.
Weiskrantz, L., 1968b, Emotion, in: Analysis of Behavioral Change (L. Weiskrantz, ed.), pp. 50–90, Harper & Row, New York.
Weiss, J. M., and Glazer, H. I., 1975, Effect of acute exposure to stressors on subsequent avoidance-escape behavior, Psychosom. Med.37:499–521.
Weiss, J. M., Stone, E. A., and Harrell, N., 1970, Coping behavior and brain norepinephrine in rats, J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.72:153–160.
Weiss, J. M., Glazer, H. I., Pohovecky, L. A., Brick, J., and Miller, N. E., 1975, Effects of chronic exposure to stressors on avoidance-escape behavior and on brain norepinephrine, Psychosom. Med.37:522–533.
White, G. K., Juhasz, J. B., and Wilson, P. J., 1973, Is man no more than this? Evaluative bias in interspecies comparison, J. Hist. Behav. Sci.9:203–212.
Wolpe, J., 1967, Parallels between animal and human neurosis, in: Comparative Psychopathology (J. Zubin and H. Hunt, eds.), pp. 305–313, Grune & Stratton, New York.
Wolpe, J., and Rachman, S., 1960, Psychoanalytic evidence: A critique of Freud’s case of Little Hans, J. Nerv. Ment. Dis.130:198–220.
Yerres, R. M., and Yerres, A. W., 1929, The Great Apes: A Study of Anthropoid Life, Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
Zubin, J., 1972, Scientific models for psychopathology in the 1970s, Semin. Psychiatry4:283–296.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1977 Plenum Press, New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kumar, R. (1977). Animal Behavioral Models of Relevance to Psychiatry. In: Iversen, L.L., Iversen, S.D., Snyder, S.H. (eds) Handbook of Psychopharmacology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-4214-4_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-4214-4_8
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-4216-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-4214-4
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive