Introduction and Historical Overview

Abstract

Throughout history, diverse cultures have recognized the influence of reinforcing and punishing consequences on behavior. Indeed, the systematic application of consequences for behavior has been institutionalized in various cultural practices such as education, child rearing, military training, government and law enforcement, religion, and other practices common to most cultures. For example, consider the widespread use of incentives to develop specific kinds of military behavior. In ancient Greece and Rome during the first century A.D., gladiators received special prizes ranging from wreaths and crowns to money and property for their victorious performance (Grant, 1967). During the same period, charioteers in Rome received freedom from their enslaved status and financial rewards for repeated victory in their duels (Carcopino, 1940). Similarly, ancient Chinese soldiers received colored peacock feathers that could be worn as an honorary symbol of their bravery during battle (Doolittle, 1865). Aztec soldiers in the fifteenth century received titles of distinction and the honor of having stone statues made of them for their triumphant military performance (Duran, 1964). Finally, plains Indians of America in the nineteenth century received attention and approval from their peers for skillful behavior in battle or during a hunt. Meritorious deeds earned the privilege of relating the experiences in public (Eggan, Gilbert, McAllister, Nash, Opler, Provinse, & Tax, 1937). In most contemporary societies, bravery in military performance continues to be rewarded with medals, badges, promotions, and similar incentives.