Abstract
Many motile microorganisms can distribute themselves asymmetrically in a vertical water column by a number of orientation behaviors, among them geotaxis. A flurry of early studies (1880–1920) generated reports on the physical, chemical, and behavioral character of geotaxis, as well as several hypotheses that might explain its occurrence. These observations and hypotheses have been discussed by Davenport (1908), Dryl (1974), Kuznicki (1968), and Haupt (1962). There is widespread agreement on several features of geotaxis.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aderhold, R., 1888, Beiträg zur kenntniss richtender krafte bie der bewegung niederer organismen, Jen. Z. Naturwiss. 22: 310 – 342.
Atema, J., 1973, Microtubule theory of sensory transduction, Theor. Biol. 38: 181 – 190.
Atema, J., 1975, Stimulus transmission along microtubules in sensory cells: a hypothesis, in: Microtubules and Microtubule Inhibitors( M. Borgers and M. DeBrabander, eds.), pp. 247 – 257, North-Holland, Elsevier, New York.
Bean, B., 1975, Geotaxis in Chlamydomonas, J. Cell Biol. 67: 24a.
Bean, B., 1976, Flagellar coordination in Chlamydomonascan be analyzed by studying geotaxis in behavioral mutants, Genetics 83: s5 – s6.
Bean, B., 1977, Geotactic behavior of Chlamydomonas, J. Protozool. 24: 394 – 401.
Bean, B., and Harris, A., 1978, Selective inhibition of flagellar activity in Chlamydomonasby Ni++, J. Protozool. 26: 235 – 240.
Bean, B., and Lawrence, J. J., 1981, A possible regulatory role of calmodulin in sensory transduction in Chlamydomonas, J. Cell Biol. 91: 50a.
Bean, B., and Yussen, P., 1979, Photoresponses of Chlamydomonas: differential inhibitions of phototactic and photophobic responses by low concentrations of Cu2+, J. Cell Biol. 83: 351a.
Bean, B., Brandt, J., and Prevelige, P., 1978, Selective effects of cupric ion on the motility and photophobic responses of Chlamydomonas, J. Cell Biol. 79: 292a.
Bean, B., Savitsky, R., and Grossinger, B., 1981, Strontium ion (Sr2+) induces backward swimming of Chlamydomonas, J. Protozool. 29: 296.
Bentrup, F. W., 1979, Reception and transduction of electrical and mechanical stimuli, in: Physiology of Movements, Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology, new series, Vol. 7 ( W. Haupt and M. E. Feinleib, eds.), pp. 42 – 70, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Bergman, K., 1973, Mutants of Phycomyceswith abnormal phototropism, Mol. Gen. Genet. 123: 1 – 16.
Bessen, M., Fay, R. B., and Witman, G. B., 1980, Calcium control of waveform in isolated flagellar axonemes of Chlamydomonas, J. Cell Biol. 84: 446 – 455.
Brinkmann, K., 1968a, Keine Geotaxis bei Euglena, Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 59: 12 – 16.
Brinkmann, K., 1968b, An phasengrenzen induzierte ein- und zweidimensionale kristallmuster in kulturen von Euglena gracilis Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 59:364–376.
Byrne, B. J., and Byrne, B. C., 1978, Behavior and the excitable membrane in Paramecium, Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 6: 53 – 108.
Cameron, J. N., and Carlile, M. J., 1977, Negative geotaxis of the fungus Phytophthora, J. Gen. Microbiol. 98: 599 – 602.
Carlile, M. J., 1980a, Positioning mechanisms—the role of motility, taxis and tropism in the life of microorganisms, in: Contemporary Microbial Ecology( D. C. Ellwood, J. N. Hedger, M. J. Latham, J. M. Lynch, and J. H. Slater, eds.), pp. 55 – 74, Academic Press, New York.
Carlile, M. J., 1980b, Sensory transduction in aneural organisms, in: Photoreception and Sensory Transduction in Aneural Organisms (F. Lenci and G. Colombetti, eds.), pp. 1–22, Plenum Press, New York.
Childress, W. S., Levandowsky, M., and Spiegel, E. A., 1975a, Pattern formation in a suspension of swimming microorganisms: equations and stability theory, J. Fluid Mech. 63: 591 – 613.
Childress, W. S., Levandowsky, M., and Spiegel, E. A., 1975b, Non-linear solutions of equations describing bioconvection, in: Swimming and Flying in Nature Vol. 1 (T. Y.-T. Wu, C. J. Brokaw, and C. Brennen, eds.), pp. 361–375, Plenum Press, New York.
Claes, H., 1980, Calcium ionophore-induced stimulation of secretory activity in Chlamydomonas reinhardii, Arch. Microbiol. 124: 81 – 86.
Creutz, C., and Diehn, B., 1976, Motor responses to polarized light and gravity sensing in Euglena gracilis, J. Protozool. 23: 552 – 556.
Cronkite, D. L., 1979, The genetics of swimming and mating behavior in Paramecium, in: Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa, 2d ed., Vol. 2 ( M. Levandowsky and S. H. Hutner, eds.), pp. 221 – 273, Academic Press, New York.
Davenport, C. B., 1908, Experimental Morphology, Third Edition, Macmillan, New York.
Dembowski, J., 1929a, Die vertikalbewegungen von Paramecium caudatum. I. Die Lage des gleichgewichtscentrums im korper des infusors, Arch. Protistenk. 66: 104 – 132.
Dembowski, J., 1929b, Die vertikalbewegungen von Paramecium caudatum. II. Einfluss einiger assenfaktoren, Arch. Protistenk. 74:153–187.
Dembowski, J., 1931, Die vertikalbewegungen von Paramecium caudatum. III. Polemisches und experimentelles, Arch. Protistenk. 74: 153 – 187.
de Peyer, J. E., and Machemer, H., 1978, Hyperpolarizing and depolarizing mechanoreceptor potentials in Stylonychia, J. Comp. Physiol. 127: 255 – 266.
Dryl, S., 1974, Behavior and motor response of Paramecium, in: Paramecium: A Current Survey( W. J. VanWagtendonk, ed.), pp. 165 - 218, Elsevier Scientific, Amsterdam.
Fornshell, J. A., 1978, An experimental investigation of bioconvection in three species of microorganisms, J. Protozool. 25: 125 – 133.
Fornshell, J. A., 1980, Positive geotaxis in Blepharisma persicinum, J. Protozool. 27:24A–25A.
Fox, H. M., 1925, The effect of light on the vertical movement of aquatic organisms, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., Biol. Sci. 1: 219 – 224.
Fukui, K., and Asai, H., 1980, The most probable mechanism of negative geotaxis of Paramecium caudatum, Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B: 56: 172 – 177.
Gitleman, S. L., and Witman, G. B., 1980, Purification of calmodulin from Chlamydomonas: calmodulin occurs in cell bodies and flagella, J. Cell Biol. 88: 764 – 770.
Gittleson, S. M., and Jahn, T. L., 1968a, Vertical aggregations of Polytomella agilis, Exp. Cell Res. 51: 579 – 586.
Gittleson, S. M., and Jahn, T. L., 1968b, Pattern swimming by Polytomella agilis, Am. Nat. 102:413–425.
Goodenough, U. W., Detmers, P. A., and Hwang, C., 1982, Activation for cell fusion in Chlamydomonas: analysis of wild-type gametes and non-fusing mutants, J. Cell Biol. 92:378–386.
Grębecki, A., and Nowakowska, G., 1977, On the mechanism of orientation of Paramecium caudatumin the gravity field. I. Influence of ciliary reversal and of external Ca deficiency on the geotactic behavior, Acta Protozool. 16: 351 – 358.
Harper, E. H., 1911, The geotropism of Paramoecium, J. Morphol. 22: 993 – 1000.
Harper, E. H., 1912, Magnetic control of geotropism in Paramoecium, J. Anim. Behav. 2: 181 – 189.
Haupt, W., 1962, Geotaxis, in Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology: Vol. XVII. Physiology of Movements( W. Ruhland, ed.), pp. 390 – 395, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Jahn, T. L., and Votta, J. J., 1972, Locomotion of protozoa, Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 4: 93 – 116.
Jahn, T. L., and Winet, H., 1973, Mechanism of negative geotaxis, Prog. Protozool, Fourth International Congress on Protozoology., Clermont-Ferrand, 197.
Jamieson, G. A., Jr., Vanaman, T. C., and Blum, J. J., 1979, Presence of calmodulin in Tetrahymena, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 76: 6471 – 6475.
Jamieson, G. A., Jr., Vanaman, T. C., Hayes, A., and Blum, J. J., 1980, Affinity chromatographic isolation of highly purified Ca-CaM sensitive dynein ATPases from Tetrahymenacilia, Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 356: 391 – 392.
Jennings, H. S., 1904, The behavior of Paramecium. Additional features and general relations, J. Comp. Neurol. Psychol. XIV: 441 – 510.
Jennings, H. S., 1906, Behavior of the Lower Organisms, Columbia University Press, New York.
Jensen, P., 1893, Ueber den geotropismus niederer organismen, Pfluegers Arch. Physiol. 53: 428 – 480.
Juniper, B. E., 1977, The perception of gravity by a plant, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 199: 537 – 550.
Kanda, S., 1918, Further studies on the geotropism of Paramecium caudatum, Biol. Bull. 34: 108 – 119.
Katz, D. F., and Pedrotti, L., 1977, Geotaxis by motile spermatozoa: hydrodynamic reorientation, Theor. Biol. 67: 723 – 732.
Knight, W. L., and Bean, B., 1980, Reactivation of motility in detergent-extracted cell models of Chlamydomonas, Abst. Ann. Meet. Am. Soc. Microbiol. 1980: 81.
Koehler, O., 1921, Uber die geotaxis von Paramecium, Verh. Dtsch. Zool. Ges. 26: 69 – 71.
Koehler, O., 1922, Uber die geotaxis von Paramecium, Arch. Protistenk. 45: 1 – 94.
Koehler, O., 1930, Uber die geotaxis von ParameciumII, Arch. Protistenk. 70: 297 - 306.
Koehler, O., 1939, Ein filmprotokoll zum reizverhalten querzertrennter Paramecien, Zool. Anz. Suppl. 12: 132 - 142.
Kung, C., 1971a, Genie mutants with altered system of excitation in Paramecium aurelia, I. Phenotypes of the behavioral mutants, Z. Vergl. Physiol. 71: 142 – 164.
Kung, C., 1971b, Genie mutants with altered system of excitation in Paramecium aurelia. II. Mutagenesis, screening and genetic analysis of the mutants, Genetics 69:29–45.
Kung, C., 1976, Membrane control of ciliary motions and its genetic modification, in: Cell Motility: Book C, Microtubules and Related Proteins( R. Goldman, T. Pollard, and J. Rosenbaum, eds.), pp. 941 – 948, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.
Kung, C., and Naitoh, Y., 1973, Calcium-induced ciliary reversal in the extracted models of “Pawn,” a behavioral mutant of Paramecium, Science 179: 195 – 196.
Kuźnicki, L., 1968, Behavior of Parameciumin gravity fields. I. Sinking of immobilized specimens, Acta Protozool. 31: 109 – 117.
Levandowsky, M., Childress, W. S., Spiegel, E. A., and Hutner, S. H., 1975, A mathematical model of pattern formation by swimming microorganisms, J. Protozool. 22: 296 – 306.
Loeb, J., 1897, Zur theorie der physiologidchen licht und schwerkraftwirkungen, Pfluegers Arch. Ges. Physiol. 66: 439 – 466.
Lyon, E. P., 1905, On the theory of geotropism in Paramecium, Am. J. Physiol. 14: 421 – 432.
Lyon, E. P., 1918, Note on the geotropism of Paramecium, Biol Bull. 34: 120.
Machemer, H., and Eckert, R., 1975, Ciliary frequency and orientational responses to clamped voltage steps in Paramecium, J. Comp. Physiol. 104: 247 – 260.
Machemer, H., and de Peyer, J., 1977, Swimming sensory cells: Electrical membrane parameters, receptor properties and motor control in ciliated Protozoa, Vehr. Dtsch. Zool. Ges. 1977: 86 – 110.
Maihle, N. J., and Satir, B. H., 1979, Calmodulin in the ciliates Paramecium tetraureliaand Tetrahymena thermophila, Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 356: 408 – 409.
Majima, T., and Oosawa, F., 1975, Response of Chlamydomonasto temperature change, J. Protozool. 22: 499 – 501.
Massart, J., 1891, Recherches sur les organisms inferieurs, Acad. R. Sci. Lett. Beaux-Arts Belg. 22: 148 – 167.
Medina, J. R., and Cerda-Olmedo, E., 1977, Allelic interaction in the photogeotropism of Phycomyces, Exp. My col. 1: 286 – 292.
Merton, H., 1935, Versche zur Geotaxis von Paramecium, Arch. Protistenk. 85: 33 – 60.
Moore, A., 1903, Some facts concerning geotropic gatherings of paramecia, Am. J. Physiol. 9: 238 – 244.
Naitoh, Y., 1974, Bioelectric basis of behavior in protozoa, Am. Zool. 14: 883 – 893.
Naitoh, Y., and Eckert, R., 1973, Sensory mechanisms in Paramecium. II. Ionic basis of the hyperpolarizing mechanoreceptor potential, J. Exp. Biol. 59: 53 – 65.
Naitoh, Y., and Eckert, R., 1974, The control of ciliary activity in protozoa, in: Cilia and Flagella( M. A. Sleigh, ed.), pp. 305 – 352, Academic Press, New York.
Naitoh, Y., and Kaneko, H., 1972, Reactivated triton-extracted models of Paramecium: modification of ciliary movement by Ca ions, Science 176: 523 – 524.
Naitoh, Y., and Kaneko, H., 1973, Control of ciliary activities by adenosinetriphosphate and divalent cations in triton-extracted models of Paramecium caudatum, J. Exp. Biol. 58: 657 – 676.
Nakaoka, Y., and Oosawa, F., 1977, Temperature-sensitive behavior of Paramecium caudatum, J. Protozool. 24: 575 – 580.
Nowakowska, G., and Grgbecki, A., 1977, On the mechanism of orientation of Paramecium caudatumin the gravity field. II. Contributions to a hydrodynamic model of geotaxis, Acta Protozool. 16: 359 – 376.
Plesset, M. S., Whipple, C. G., and Winet, H., 1975, Analysis of the steady state of the bioconvection in swarms of swimming microorganisms, in: Swimming and Flying in Nature, Vol. 1 ( T. Y-T. Wu, C. J. Brokaw, and C. Brennan, eds.), pp. 339 – 360, Plenum Press, New York.
Roberts, A. M., 1970, Geotaxis in motile microorganisms, J. Exp. Biol. 53: 687 – 699.
Roberts, A. M., 1972, Gravitational separation of X and Y spermatozoa, Nature (Lond.) 238: 223 – 225.
Roberts, A. M., 1975, The biassed random walk and the analysis of microorganism movement, in: Swimming and Flying in Nature, Vol. 1, ( T. Y.-T. Wu, C. J. Brokaw, and C. Brennan, eds.), pp. 377 – 393, Plenum Press, New York.
Roberts, A. M., 1981, Hydrodynamics of protozoan swimming, in Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa, 2nd ed., Vol. 4 ( M. Levandowsky and S. H. Hutner, eds.), pp. 5 – 66, Academic Press, New York.
Satir, P., and Ojakian, G. K., 1979, Plant cilia, in: Physiology of Movements, Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology, new ser., Vol. 7 ( W. Haupt and M. E. Feinleib, eds.), pp. 224 – 249, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Satir, B. H., Garofalo, R. S., Gilligan, D. M., Maihle, N. J., 1980, Possible functions of calmodulin in protozoa, Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 356: 83 – 91.
Schwarz, F., 1884, Der einfluss der schwerkraft auf die Bewegunsrichtung von Chlamidomonasund Euglena, Dtsch. Bot. Ges. Ber. 2: 57 – 72.
Sievers, A., and Volkmann, D., 1979, Gravitropism in single cells, in: Physiology of Movements, Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology, new ser., Vol. 7 ( W. Haupt and M. E. Feinleib, eds.) pp. 567 – 572, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Solter, K. M., and Gibor, A., 1977, Evidence for role of flagella as sensory transducers in mating of Chlamydomonas reinhardi, Nature (Lond.) 265: 444 – 445.
Suzuki, Y., Ohnishi, K., Hirabayashi, T., and Watanabe, Y., 1981, Localization of calmodulin in Tetrahymenacells and cilia, J. Cell Biol. 91: 46a.
Thiele, R., 1960, Uber lichtadaptation und musterbildung bei Euglena gracilis, Arch. Microbiol. 37: 379 – 398.
Verworn, M., 1889, Psychophysiologisch Protistenstudien, G. Fischer, Jena.
Verworn, M., 1899, General Physiology: An outline of the Science of Life, Macmillan, London.
Vincenzi, F. F., and Hinds, T. R., 1980, Calmodulin and Plasma membrane calcium transport, in: Calcium and Cell Function, Vol. I: Calmodulin( W. Y. Cheung, ed.), pp. 127 – 165, Academic Press, New York.
Volkmann, D., and Sievers, A., 1979, Graviperception in multicellular organs, in: Physiology of Movements, Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology, new ser., Vol. 7 ( W. Haupt and M. E. Feinleib, eds.), pp. 573 – 600, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Wager, H., 1910, The effect of gravity upon the movements and aggregation of Euglena viridis, Ehrb., and other micro-organisms, Proc. Roy. Soc. B83: 94 – 96.
Wager, H., 1911, The effect of gravity upon the movements and aggregation of Euglena viridis, Ehrb., and other micro-organisms, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B201: 333 – 388.
Walsby, A. E., 1978, The gas vesicles of aquatic prokaryotes, in: Relations Between Structure and Function in the Prokaryotic Cell, 28th Symposium of the Society for General Microbiology( R. Y. Stanier, H. J. Rogers, and J. B. Ward, eds.), pp. 327 – 358, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Weiss, B., and Wallace, T. L., 1980, Mechanisms and pharmacological implications of altering calmodulin activity, in: Calcium and Cell Function, Vol. I: Calmodulin( W. Y. Cheung, ed.), pp. 329 – 379, Academic Press, New York.
Wilkins, M. B., 1979, Growth-control mechanisms in gravitropism, in: Physiology of Movements, Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology, new ser., Vol. 7 ( W. Haupt and M. E. Feinleib, eds.), pp. 601 – 626, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Winet, H., and Jahn, T. L., 1974, Geotaxis in Protozoa I. A propulsion-gravity model for Tetrahymena(Ciliata), J. Theor. Biol. 46: 449 – 465.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1984 Plenum Press, New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bean, B. (1984). Microbial Geotaxis. In: Colombetti, G., Lenci, F. (eds) Membranes and Sensory Transduction. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-2675-5_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-2675-5_5
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-9665-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-2675-5
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive