Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Therapy of Renal Diseases and Related Disorders pp 45–89Cite as

Disorders of Potassium Metabolism

  • Chapter

Abstract

Causes of potassium abnormalities are multiple. They may be observed in a variety of clinical settings from the office to the emergency room, and they confront the endocrinologist, nephrologist, cardiologist, gastroenterologist, as well as the surgeon and the anesthesiologist. Many derangements of potassium homeostasis are confusing and poorly understood. Not infrequently, they are iatrogenically induced. All carry the potential of life-threatening consequences. The importance of recognizing the etiology of changes in potassium homeostasis is critical for appropriate therapeutic intervention. Similarly, an adequate understanding of potassium homeostasis is necessary for preventing or minimizing iatrogenic potential causes of serious hyperkalemia or hypokalemia. For these reasons, a brief overview of normal potassium homeostasis and regulating factors is presented prior to considering specific clinical entities and treatment modalities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Sterns RH, Cox M, Feig PV, Singer I: Internal potassium balance and the control of the plasma potassium concentration. Medicine (Baltimore) 60:339–354, 1981.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Holbrook JT, Patterson KJ, Bodner JE, Douglas LW: Sodium and potassium intake and balance in adults consuming self-selected diets. Am J Clin Nutr 40:786–793, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Fordtran JS: Speculations on the pathogenesis of diarrhea. Fed Proc 26:1405–1414, 1967.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Field MJ, Berliner RW, Giebisch GH: Regulation of renal potassium metabolism. In: MM Maxwell, CR Kleeman, RG Narins eds, Clinical Disorders of Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 119–146, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Good DW, Wright FS: Luminal influences on potassium secretion: Sodium concentration and fluid flow rate. Am J Physiol 236.F192–F205, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Good DW, Velasquez H, Wright FS: Luminal influences on potassium secretion: Low sodium concentration. Am J Physiol 246:F609–F619, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Field MJ, Stanton BA, and Giebisch GH: Influence of ADH on renal potassium handling: A micropuncture and microperfusion study in Brattleboro rats. Kidney Int 25:502–511, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Velasquez H, Wright FS, Good DW: Luminal influences on potassium secretion: Chloride replacement with sulfate. Am J Physiol 242:F46–F55, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Koeppen BM, Biagi BA, Giebisch GH: Intracellular micro-electrode characterization of the rabbit cortical collecting duct. Am J Physiol 244:F35–F47, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Schambelan M, Sebastian A, Rector FC Jr: Mineralocorticoid resistant renal hyperkalemia without salt wasting (type II pseudohypoaldosteronism). Role of increased renal chloride reabsorption. Kidney Int 19:716–727, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Field MJ, Stanton BA, Giebisch GH: Differential acute effects of aldosterone and dexamethasone and hyperkalemia on distal tubular potassium secretion in the rat kidney. J Clin Invest 74:1792–1802, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Stanton B, Pan L, Deetjen H, Guckian V, Giebisch GH: Independent effects of aldosterone and potassium on inauction of potassium adaptation in rat kidney. J Clin Invest 79:198–206, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Scandling JD, Ornt DB: Mechanism of potassium depletion during chronic metabolic acidosis in the rat. Am J Physiol 252:F122–F130, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Field MJ, Giebisch GJ: Hormonal control of potassium excretion. Kidney Int 27:279–387, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Katz LD, D’Avella J, DeFronzo RA: Effect of epinephrine on renal potassium excretion in the isolated perfused rat kidney. Am J Physiol 247:F331–F338, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Tannen RL: Potassium disorders. In: JP Kokko, RL Tannen, eds, Fluid and Electrolytes. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 150–228, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Gabow PA, Peterson LN: Disorders of potassium metabolism. In: RW Schrier, ed, Renal and Electrolyte Disorders. Little, Brown, Boston pp 207–249, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Shanes AM: Electrochemical aspects of physiological and pharmacological action in excitable cells: II. The action of potential and excitations. Pharmacol Rev 10:165–273, 1958.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Saxton CR, Seidin DW: Clinical interpretation of laboratory values. In: JP Kokko, RL Tannen, eds, Fluids and Electrolytes. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 3–63, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Brown RS: Nephrology Forum. Extrarenal potassium homeostasis. Kidney Int 30:116–127, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Mather A, Mackie NR: Effects of hemolysis on serum electrolyte value. Clin Chem 6:223–227, 1960.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Skinner SL: A cause of erroneous potassium levels. Lancet, 1:478–480, 1961.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Romano AT, Young GN Jr: Mild forearm exercise during venipuncture, and its effects on potassium determinations. Clin Chem 2:303–304, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Ingram RH Jr, Seki M: Pseudohyperkalemia with thrombocytosis. N Engl J Med 267:895–900, 1962.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Chumbley LC: Pseudohyperkalemia in acute myelocytic leukemia. JAMA, 211:1007–1009, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Wills MR, Fraser ID: Spurious hyperkalemia. J Clin Pathol 17:649–650, 1964.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Stewart GN, Carrol RJM, Fyffe JA: Familial pseudohyperkalemia: A new syndrome. Lancet 2:175–177, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Naparstek Y, Gutman A: Spurious hypokalemia in myeloproliferative disorders. Am J Med Sci 288:175–177, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Smith JD, Bia MJ, DeFronzo RA. Clinical disorders of potassium metabolism. In: AI Arieff, RA DeFronzo, eds, Fluid, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Disorders. Churchill Livingstone, New York, pp 413–509, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Bia MJ, DeFronzo RA: Extrarenal potassium homeostasis. Am J Physiol 240:F257–F268, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Fraley DS, Adler S: Isohydric regulation of plasma potassium by bicarbonate in the rat. Kidney Int 9:333–343, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Fraley DS, Adler S: Correction of hyperkalemia by bicarbonate despite constant blood pH. Kidney Int 12:354–360, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Malnic G, de Mello-Aires M, Giebisch G: Potassium transport across renal distal tubules during acid-base disturbances. Am J Physiol 221:1192–1208, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Perez GO, Oster JR, Vaamonde CA: Serum potassium concentration in acidotic states. Nephron 27:233–243, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Adrogué HJ, Chap Z, Ishida T, Field JB: Role of the endocrine pancreas in the kalemic response to acute metabolic acidosis in conscious dogs. J Clin Invest 75:798–808, 1985.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Adrogué HJ, Lederer ED, Suki WN, Eknoyan G: Determinants of plasma potassium levels in diabetic ketoacidosis. Medicine 65:163–172, 1986.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Alexander EA, Perrone RD: Regulation of extrarenal potassium metabolism. In: MH Maxwell, CR Kleeman, RG Narins, eds, Clinical Disorders of Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 105–117, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Santeusano F, Faloona G, Knochel JP, Unger RH: Evidence for a role of endogenous insulin and glucagon in the regulation of potassium homeostasis. J Lab Clin Med 81:809–817, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  39. DeFronzo RA, Sherwin RS, Dillingham M, Hendler R, Tamborlane WV, Felig P: Influence of basal insulin and glucagon secretion on potassium and sodium metabolism. J Clin Invest 61:472–479, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. DeFronzo RA, Felig P, Ferrannini E, Wahren J: Effect of graded doses of insulin on splanchnic and peripheral potassium metabolism in man. Am J Physiol 238:E421–E427, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Andres R, Baltzman MA, Cader G, Zierler KL: Effect of insulin on carbohydrate metabolism and on potassium in the forearm of man. J Clin Invest 41:108–114, 1962.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Cox M, Sterns RH, Singer I: The defense against hyperkalemia: The roles of insulin and aldosterone. N Engl J Med 299:525–532, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Martinez R, Rietberg R, Skyler J, Oster JR, Perez GO: Effect of hyperkalemia on insulin secretion. Experientia. In press.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Goldfarb S, Strunk I, Goldberg M: Paradoxical glucose induced hyperkalemia: Combined aldosterone and insulin deficiencies. Am J Med 59:744–750, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Goldfarb S, Cox M, Singer I, Goldberg M: Acute hyperkalemia induced by hyperglycemia: Hormonal mechanisms. Ann Intern Med 84:426–432, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Perez GO, Lespier L, Knowles R, Oster JR, Vaamonde CA: Potassium homeostasis in chronic diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med 137:1018–1022, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Pettit GW, Vick RL, Kastello MD: The contribution of renal and extrarenal mechanisms to hypokalemia induced by glucagon. Eur J Pharmacol 41:437–441, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Burton SD, Mandon CE, Ishida T: Dissociation of potassium and glucose efflux in isolated perfused rat liver. Am J Physiol 212:261–266, 1967.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. D’Silva JH: The action of adrenaline on serum potassium. J Physiol 82:393–398, 1934.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. D’Silva JH: The action of adrenaline on serum potassium. J Physiol 86:219–228, 1936.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. DeFronzo RA, Bia M, Birkhead G: The effect of epinephrine on potassium homeostasis. Kidney Int 20:83–91, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Rosa RM, Silva P, Young JB, Landsberg K, Brown RS, Rowe JW, Epstein FH: Adrenergic modulation of extrarenal potassium disposal. N Engl J Med 302:431–434, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Bia MJ, Tyler K, DeFronzo RA: Regulation of extrarenal potassium homeostasis by adrenal hormones in rats. Am J Physiol 242:F641–F644, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Struthers AD, Reid JL: The role of adrenal medullary catecholamines in potassium homeostasis. Clin Sci 66:377–382, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Clausen T: Adrenergic control of Na+ - K+ homeostasis. Acta Med Scand Suppl 672:111–115, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Carlsson E, Fellenius E, Lundborg P, Svensson L: Beta-adrenoceptor blockers, plasma potassium, and exercise. Lancet 2:424–425, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Arrizabalaga P, Montoliu J, Martinez-Vea A, Andreu L, Lopez Pedret J, Revert L: Increase in serum potassium caused by beta 2-adrenergic blockade in terminal renal failure: Absence of mediation by insulin or aldosterone. Proc Eur dialysis Transplant Assoc 20:572–574, 1983.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Todd EP, Vick RL: Kalemotrophic effect of epinephrine: Analysis with adrenergic agonists and antagonists. Am J Physiol 220:1963–1969, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Williams ME, Rosa RM, Silva P Brown RS, Epstein, FH: Impairment of extrarenal potassium disposal by alpa-adrenergic stimulation. N Engl J Med 311:145–149, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Brown MJ, Brown DC, Murphy MD: Hypokalemia from beta 2-receptor stimulation by circulating epinephrine. N Engl J Med 309:1414–1419, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Williams ME, Gervino EV, Rosa RM, Landsberg L, Young JB, Silva P, Epstein FH: Catecholamine modulation of rapid potassium shifts during exercise. N Engl J Med 312:823–827, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Struthers AD, Reid JL, Whitesmith R, Rodger JC: The effect of cardioselective and nonselective beta-adrenoceptor blockade on the hypokalemic and cardiovascular responses to adrenomedullary hormone in man. Clin Sci 65:143–147, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Kjellmer I: The role of K ions in exercise hyperaemia. Med Exp (Basel) 5:56–60, 1961.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Moreno M, Murphy C, Goldsmith C: Increase in serum potassium resulting from the administration of hypertonic mannitol and other solutions. J Lab Clin Med 73:291–294, 1969.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Makoff DL, Da Silva JA, Rosenbaum BJ, Levy SE, Maxwell MH: Hypertonic expansion: Acid-base and electrolyte changes. Am J Physiol 218:1201–1207, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Makoff DL, Da Silva JA, Rosenbaum BJ: On the mechanism of hyperkalemia due to hyperosmotic expansion with saline or mannitol. Clin Sci 41:383–393, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Lim VS, Webster GD: The effect of aldosterone on water and electrolyte composition of incubated rat diaphragms. Clin Sci 33:261–270, 1967.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Adler S: An extrarenal action of aldosterone on mammalian skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 218:616–621, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. DeFronzo RA, Bia M: Extrarenal potassium homeostasis. In: DW Seldin, G Giebisch, eds, The Kidney: Physiology and Pathophysiology. Rover Press, New York pp 1179–1206, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Young DB, Jackson TE: Effects of aldosterone on potassium distribution. Am J Physiol 243:R526–R530, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Alexander EA, Levinsky NG: An extrarenal mechanism of potassium adaptation. J Clin Invest 47:740–748, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Perez GO, Pelleya R, Oster JR, Kern DC Vaamonde CA: Blunted kaliuresis afrer an acute potassium load in patients with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 24:656–662, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Clausen T, Wang P, Ørskov H, Kristensen O: Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis. Relationships between changes in plasma water, electrolytes, insulin and catecholamines during attacks. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 40:211–220, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Wang P, Clausen T: Treatment of attacks in hyperkalemic periodic paralysis by inhalation of salbutamol. Lancet 1:221–223, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Smith TW, Butler VP, Haber E, Fozzard H, Marcus FI, Bremmer WF, Schulman IC, Philips A: Treatment of life-threatening digitalis intoxication with digoxin-specific Fab antibody fragments. N Engl J Med 307:1357–1362, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Haynes BE, Besser HA, Wightman WD: Oleander tea: Herbal draught of death. Ann Emerg Med 14:350–353, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Coggans F: Acute hyperkalemia during lithium treatment of manic illness. Am J Psych 137:860–861, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  78. McIvor M, Baltazar R, Beltran J, Mower MM, Wenk R, Lustgarten J, Salmon J: Hyperkalemia and cardiac arrest from fluoride exposure during hemodialysis. Am J Card 51:901–902, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Schwartz WB: Potassium and the kidney. N Engl J Med 253:601–608, 1955.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Adam WR, Dawborn JK: Potassium tolerance in rats. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci 50:757–786, 1972.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Fisher KA, Binder HJ, Hayslett JP: Potassium secretion by colonic mucosal cells after potassium adaptation. Am J Physiol 231:987–994, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Wright FS, Strieder N, Fowler NB, Giebisch G: Potassium secretion by distal tubule after potassium adaptation. Am J Physiol 221:437–448, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Perez GO, Oster JR, Pelleya R, Caralis PV, Kern DC: Hyperkalemia from single small oral doses of potassium chloride. Nephron 36:270–271, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Bourgoignie JJ, Kaplan M, Pincus J, Gavellas G, Rabinovitch A: Renal handling of potassium in dogs with chronic renal insufficiency. Kidney Int 20:482–490, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Fernandez J, Oster JR, Perez GO: Impaired extrarenal disposal of an acute oral potassium load in patients with end-stage renal disease on chronic hemodialysis. Mineral Electrolyte Metab 12:125–129, 1986.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Stemmer CL, Perez GO, Oster JR: Impairment of β 2-adrenoceptor stimulated potassium uptake in endstage renal disease. J Clin Pharmacol 27:628–631, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Keith NM, Osterberg AE, Burchell HB: Some effects of potassium salts in man. Ann Intern Med 16:879–892, 1942.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Lawson DH: Adverse reactions to potassium chloride. Q J Med 43:433–440, 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Shapiro S, Slone D, Lewis GP, Jick H: Fatal drug reactions among medical inpatients. JAMA 216:467–472, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Silva P, Brown RS, Epstein FH: Adaptation to potassium. Kidney Int 11:466–475, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Kahn T, Kaji DM, Nicolis G, Krakoff LR, Stein RM: Factors related to potassium transport in stable chronic renal disease. Clin Sci Mol Med 54:661–666, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Schon DA, Silva P, Hayslett JP: Mechanism of potassium excretion in renal insufficiency. Am J Physiol 227:1323–2330, 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Schultze RG, Taggart DD, Shapiro H, Pennell JP, Caglar S, Bricker NS: On the adaptation in potassium excretion association with nephron reduction in the dog. J Clin Invest 50:1061–1068, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Bourgoignie JJ, Jacob AI, Sallman AL, Pennell JP: Water, electrolyte, and acid-base abnormalities in chronic renal failure. Semins Nephrol 1:91–111, 1981.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Bourgoignie JJ, Gavellas G, Van Putten V, Bed T: Potassium aldosterone response in dogs with chronic renal insufficiency. Miner Electrolyte Metab 11:150–154, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Brown JJ, Fraser R, Lever AF, Robertson JIS, James VHT, McCusker J, Wynn V: Renin, angiotensin, corticosteroids, and electrolyte balance in Addison’s disease. Q J Med 37:97–118, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Tucker WS, Snell BB, Island DG, Gregg CR: Reversible adrenal insufficiency induced by ketoconazole. JAMA 253:2413–2414, 1985.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Migeon CJ: Diagnosis and treatment of adrenogenital disorders. In: LJ DeGroot, GF Cahill, L Martini, DH Nelson, WD Odell, JT Potts, E Sternberger, AI Winegrad, eds, Endocrinology. Grune & Stratton, New York, pp 1203–1224, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Mulaikal RM, Migeon CJ, Rock JA: Fertility rates in female patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. N Engl J Med 316:178–182, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Ulick S: Diagnosis and nomenclature of the disorders of the terminal portion of the aldosterone biosynthetic pathway. J Clin Endocr Metab 43:92–96, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Perez G, Siegel L, Schreiner GE: Selective hypoaldosteronism with hyperkalemia. Ann Intern Med 76:757–763, 1972.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Shambelan M, Sebastian A: Hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism. Adv Intern Med 24:385–405, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  103. DeFronzo RA: Nephrology forum: Hyperkalemia and hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism. Kidney Int 17:118–134, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Findley JW, Adams AH, Raff H: Selective hypoaldosteronism due to endogenous impairment in angiotensin II production. N Engl J Med 316:1632–1635, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Perez GO, Oster JR, Vaamonde CA: Renal acidification in patients with mineralocorticoid deficiency. Nephron 17:461–473, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Vaamonde CA, Perez GO, Oster JR: Syndrome of aldosterone deficiency. In: J Arruda, N Kurtzman, eds, Symposium on Disorders of Tubular Transport: Physiological and Clinical Implications. Miner Electrolyte Metab 5:121–134, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Halperin ML, Bear R, Goldstein MB, Richardson RMA, Robson WLM: Interpretation of the serum potassium concentration in metabolic acidosis. Clin Invest Med 2:55–57, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Perez GO, Oster JR, Vaamonde CA: Renal acidosis and renal potassium handling in selective hypoaldosteronism. Am J Med 57:809–816, 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. MacCarthy EP, Frost GW, Strokes GS: Indomethacin-induced hyperkalemia. Med J Aust 1:550, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Goldszer R, Coodley EL, Posner MJ, Simons WM, Schwartz AB: Hyperkalemia associated with indomethacin. Arch Inten Med 141:802–804, 1981.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Nesher G, Zirman A, Hershko C: Hyperkalemia associated with sulindac therapy. J Rheumatol 13:1084–1085, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Packer M, Kessler PD, Gottlieb SS: Adverse effects of converting-enzyme inhibition in patients with severe congestive heart failure: Pathophysiology and management. Postgrad Med J 62 (Suppl 1):179–182, 1986.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Kahan BD: CsA nephrotoxicity. Transplant and Immunol 3:1–11, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  114. Stern N, Lusky S, Petrasck D, Jensen G, Eggena P, Lee DBN, Tuck ML: Cyclosporin A-induced hyperreninemic hypoaldosteronism. A model of adrenal resistance to angiotensin II. Hypertension 9:11131–11135, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Edes TE, Sunderranjan EV: Heparin-induced hyperkalemia. Arch Intern Med 145:1070–1072, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Oberfield SE, Levine LS, Carey RM, Bejar R, New MI: Pseudohypoaldosteronism. Multiple target organ unresponsiveness to mineralocorticoid hormones. J Clin Endocr Metab 48:228–234, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Gordon RD: The syndrome of hypertension and hyperkalemia with normal GFR. A unique pathophysiologic mechanism for hypertension. Clin Exp Pharm Physiol 13:329–333, 1986.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Perez GO, Pelleya R, Oster JR: Renal tubular hyperkalemia. Am I Nephrol 2:109–114, 1982.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Mehta BR, Cavallo T, Rummers AR, DuBose TD: Hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism in a patient with multiple myeloma. Am J Kidney Dis 4:175–178, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Batlle DC, Arruda JAL, Kurtzman NA: Hyperkalemic distal renal tubular acidosis associated with obstructive uropathy. N Engl J Med 304:373–380, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. DeFronzo RA, Taufield PA, Black H, McPhedran P, Cooke CR: Impaired renal tubular potassium secretion in sickle cell disease. Ann Intern Med 90:310–316, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. DeFronzo RA, Cooke CR, Goldberg M, Cox M, Myers, AR, Agus ZS: Impaired renal tubular potassium secretion in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Intern Med 86:268–271, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Kiley J, Zager P: Hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism in two patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Kidney Dis 4:39–43, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. DeFronzo RA, Goldberg M, Cooke CR: Investigations into the mechanism of hyperkalemia following renal transplantation. Kidney Int 11:357–365, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Kokko JP: Site and mechanism of action of diuretics. Am J Med 77(5A):11–17, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Dittrich KL, Walls RM: Hyperkalemia: ECG manifestations and clinical considerations. J Emerg Med 4:449–455, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Dominguez G, Fozzard HA: Influence of extracellular K+ concentrations on cable properties and excitability of sheep cardiac Purkinje fibers. Circ Res 26:565–574, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Pollen RH, Williams RH: Hyperkalemic neuromyopathy in Addison’s disease. N Engl J Med 273–278, 1960.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Sealey JE, Clark I, Bull MB, Laragh JH: Potassium balance and the control of renin secretion. J Clin Invest 49:2119–2127, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Zusman RM, Keiser HR: Regulation of prostaglandin E2 synthesis by angiotensin II, potassium, osmolality, and dexamethasone. Kidney Int 17:277–283, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Landsberg L, Young JB: Fasting, feeding and regulation of the sympathetic nervous system. N Engl J Med 298:1295–1301, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Chan YL, Biagi B, Giebisch G: Control mechanisms of bicarbonate transport across the rat proximal convoluted tubule. Am I Physiol 242:F532–F543, 1982.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Kunau RT Jr, Frick A, Rector FC Jr, Seidin DW: Micropuncture study of the proximal tubular factors responsible for the maintenance of alkalosis during potassium deficiency in the rat. Clin Sci 34:223–231, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Levine DZ, Walker T, Nash LA: Effects of KCl infusions on proximal tubular function in normal and potassium depleted rats. Kidney Int 4:318–325, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Tannen RL, McGill J: Influence of potassium in renal ammonia production. Am I Physiol 231:1178–1184, 1976.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Levinsky NG: Management of emergencies VI: Hyperkalemia. N Engl I Med 274:1076–1077, 1966.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Kassirer JP, Wish JB: Disorders of potassium metabolism. In: WN Suki, SG Massry, eds, Therapy of Renal Diseases and Related Disorders. Martinus Njhoff, Boston, pp 63–81, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Calcium Gluconate Injection, USP. Package Insert, Invenex Laboratories, Revision, April, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  139. Worthley LIG, Philips PH: Intravenous calcium salts (letter). Lancet 2:149, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Calcium Chloride Injection, USP. Package Insert, Invenex Laboratories, Revision, April, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Knochel JP: Rhabdomyolysis and myoglobinuria. In: WN Suki, G Eknoyan, eds, The Kidney in Systemic Disease. John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp 263–284, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  142. Kayexalate brand of sodium polystyrene sulfonate, USP. Package Insert, Winthrop-Beron Laboratories, Revision, January, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Haupt HM, Hutchins GM: Sodium polystyrene pneumonitis. Arch Intern Med 142:379–381, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Johnson K, Gardner ME: Kayexalate candy. Am I Hosp Pharm 35:1034–1035, 1978.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Madias NE, Levey AS: Metabolic alkalosis due to absorption of “nonabsorbable” antacids. Am J Med 74:155–158, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Stemmer CL, Oster JR, Vaamonde CA, Perez GO, Rogers AI: Effect of routine doses of antacid on renal acidification. Lancet 2:3–6, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Lillemoe KD, Romolo JL, Hamilton SR, Pennington LR, Burdick JE, Williams GM: Intestinal necrosis due to sodium polystyrene (Kayexalate) in sorbitol enemas: Clinical and experimental support for the hypothesis. Surgery 101:267–272, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Wiegand CF, Davin TD, Raij L, Kjellstrand CM: Severe hypokalemia induced by hemodialysis. Arch Intern Med 141:161–170, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  149. Feig PV, Shook A, Sterns RH: Effect of potassium removal during hemodialysis on the plasma concentration. Nephron 27:25–30, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Sherman RA, Hwang ER, Bernholc AS, Eisinger RP: Variability in potassium: Removal by hemodialysis. Am J Nephrol 6:284–288, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Brown ST, Ahearn DJ, Nolph KD: Potassium removal with peritoneal dialysis. Kidney Int 4:67–69, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Ponce SP, Jennings AE, Madias NE, Harrington JT: Drug-induced hyperkalemia. Medicine 64:357–370, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. McSherry E: Nephrology forum: Renal tubular acidosis in childhood. Kidney Int 20:799–809, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Radó JP, Bános C, Gercsák G, Molnár Z, Pat E, Csabuda M: Glucose-induced hyperkalemia developing in the upright position in captopril-treated hypertensives. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 38:161–164, 1982.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Montoliu J, Revert L: Lethal hyperkalemia associated with severe hyperglycemia in diabetic patients with renal failure. Am J Kidney Dis 5:47–48.

    Google Scholar 

  156. Sebastian A, Schambelan M, Sutton JM: Amelioration of hyperchloremic acidosis with furosemide therapy in patients with chronic renal insufficiency and type 4 renal tubular acidosis. Am J Nephrol 4:287–300, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Perez GO, Lespier LE, Oster JR, Vaamonde CA: Effect of alterations of sodium intake in patients with hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism. Nephron 18:259–265, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Radó JP, Boer P, Dorhout Mees EJ, Simatupang T: “Outpatient hyperkalemia” syndrome in renal and hypertensive patients with suppressed aldosterone production. J Med 10:145–157, 1979.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Riggs JE, Griggs RC, Moxley III, Lewis ED: Acute effects of acetazolamide in hyperkalemic periodic paralysis. Neurology 31:725–729, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Pope HG Jr, Hudson JI, Poskanzer DC, Yurgelum-Todd D: Familial hyperkalemic periodic paralysis and bipolar disorder: A linkage and treatment study. Biol Psychiat 19:1449–1459, 1984.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Montoliu J, Lens XM, Revert L: Potassium-lowering effect of albuterol for hyperkalemia in renal failure. Arch Intern Med 147:713–717, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Vitez TS: Treatment of hyperkalemia with epinephrine. Anesthesiology 65:350–351, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Britt BA: Malignant hyperthermia. Can Anaesth Soc J 32:666–677, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Ward RJ, Eisele JW, Reay DT, Horton WG: Hemolysis and hyperkalemia complicate malignant hyperpyrexia during anesthetic death. J Foren Sci 31:543–545, 1986.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Rubin AS, Zablocki AD: Hyperkalemia, verapamil and dantrolene. Anesthesiology 66:246–247, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. McCarron DA, Elliott WC, Rose JS, Bennet WM: Severe mixed metabolic acidosis secondary to rhabdomyolysis. Am J Med 67:905–908, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Smith TW, Wilkerson JT: Suicidal and accidental digoxin ingestion: Report of five cases with serum digoxin level correlations. Circulation 44:29–36, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Papadakis MA, Wexman MP, Fraser C, Sedlacek SM: Hyperkalemia complicating digoxin toxicity in a patient with renal failure. Am J Kidney Dis 5:64–66, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Gordon RD, Hodsman GP: The syndrome of hypertension and hyperkalaemia without renal failure: Long term correction by thiazide diuretic. Scot Med J 31:43–44, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Rastogi S, Bayliss JM, Nascimento L, Arruda JAL: Hyperkalemic renal tubular acidosis: Effect of furosemide in humans and in rats. Kidney Int 28:801–807, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Lorch V, Jones FS, Hoersten IR: Treatment of hyperkalemia with exchange transfusion. Transfusion 25:390–391, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Morgan DB, Young RM: Acute transient hypokalemia: New interpretation of a common event. Lancet 2:751–752, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Lawson DM, Henry DA, Lowe JM, Gray JMB, Morgan HG: Severe hypokalemia in hospitalized patients. Arch Intern Med 139:978–980. 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Price BJ, Paterson KR, Onyanga-Ornara F, Donnelly T, Gray JM, Lawson DH: Record linkage study of hypokalemia in hospitalized patients. Postgrad Med J 62:187–191, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  175. Sandor FF, Pickens PT, Crallan J: Variations of plasma potassium concentrations during long-term treatment of hypertension with diuretics without potassium supplements. Br Med J 284:711–715, 1982.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Gonzalez J, Hogg RJ: Metabolic alkalosis secondary to baking soda treatment of a diaper rash. Pediatrics 67:820–822, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Camous JP, Gibelin P, Benoit P, Baudouy M, Varenne A, Morand P: Hypokaliemie avec troubles du rythme graves induite par l’eau de Vichy. Presse Medicale 15:2212–2213, 1986.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Kreisberg RA: Diabetic ketoacidosis: New concepts and trends in pathogenesis and treatment. Ann Intern Med 88:681–695, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Burghen GA, Etteldorf JH, Fisher JN, Kitabchi AQ: Comparison of high-dose and low-dose insulin by continuous intravenous infusion in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis in children. Diabetes Care 3:15–20, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Robertson CS, Clifton JL, Taylor AA, Grossman RG: Treatment of hypertension associated with head injury. J Neurosurgery 59:455–460, 1983.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Conci F, Procaccio F, Boselli L: Hypokalemia from beta 2-receptor stimulation by epinephrine (letter), N Engl J Med 310:1329, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  182. Dyckner T, Helmers C, Lundman T, Webster PO: Initial serum potassium level in relation to early complications and prognosis in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Acta Med Scand 197:207–210, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Nordrehaug JE: Malignant arrhythmias in relation to serum potassium values in patients with an acute myocardial infarction. Acta Med Scand 647(5):101–107, 1981.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Solomon RJ, Cole AG: Importance of potassium in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Acta Med Scand 647(5):87:93, 1981.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Whelton PK, Whelton A, Walker WG: Preface. In: Potassium in Cardiovascular and Renal Medicine. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp V–VI, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  186. Ingemarsson I, Arulkumaran S, Kottegoda SR: Complications of beta-mimetic therapy in preterm labour. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol 25:182–189, 1985.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Hendricks SK, Keroes J, Katz M: Electrocardiographic changes associated with ritodrine-induced maternal tachycardia and hypokalemia. Am J Obstet Gynaecol 154:921–923, 1986.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Moravec MA, Huribert BJ: Hypokalemia associated with terbutaline administration in obstetrical patients. Anesth Analg 59:917–920, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Haalboom JRE, Deenstra M, Struyvenberg A: Hypokalemia induced by inhalation of fenoterol. Lancet 1:1125–1127, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Smith SR, Kendall MJ: Potentiation of the adverse effects of intravenous terbutaline by oral theophylline. Br J Clin Pharmacol 21:451–453, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Zierler K: Family periodic paralyses. In: Whelton PK, Whelton A, Walker WG, eds, Potassium in Cardiovascular and Renal Medicine. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 133–142, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  192. Johnson V, Winternitz WW: Hypokalemic periodic paralysis. South Med J: 77:1207–1209, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Rüdel R, Lehmann-Horn F, Ricker K, Küther G: Hypokalemic periodic paralysis: Invitro investigation of muscle fiber membrane parameters. Muscle Nerve 7:110–120, 1984.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Blachley J, Knochel JP: Alcohol-induced disturbances in electrolyte and acid-base homeostasis. In: JP Kokko, RL Tannen, eds, Fluids and Electrolytes. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 515–547, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  195. Wadstein J, Skude J: Does hypokalemia precede delirium tremens? Lancet, 2:549–551.

    Google Scholar 

  196. Berning, J: Hypokalemia of barium poisoning (letter). Lancet, 1:110, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Wetherill SF, Guarino MJ, Cox RW: Acute renal failure associated with barium chloride poisoning. Ann Intern Med 95:187–188, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Stewart DW, Hummel RP: Acute poisoning by a barium chloride burn. J Trauma 24:768–70, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Roza O, Berman LB: The pathophysiology of barium: Hypokalemic and cardiovascular effects. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 177:433–439, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Lofaso F, Baud FJ, Halna du Fretay X, Bismuth C, Staikowsky F, Sidhom N: Hypokaliemié au cours d’intoxications massives par la chloroquine. Presse Méd 16:22–24, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Hall KW, Dobson KE, Dalton JG, Chignone MC Penner SB: Metabolic abnormalities associated with intentional theophylline overdose. Ann Intern Med 101:457–462, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Passmore AP, Kondewe GB, Johnston GD: Caffeine and hypokalemia. Ann Intern Med 105–468, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  203. Streicher HZ, Gabow PA, Moss AM, Kono D, Kaehny WD: Syndromes of toluene sniffing in adults. Ann Intern Med 94:758–762, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Rao TLK, Mathru M, Salem MR, Adel AE: Serum potassium level following transfusion of frozen erythrocytes. Anesthesiology 52:170–172, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Hesp R, Chanarin L, Tait CE: Potassium changes in megaloblastic anemia. Clin Sci Mol Med 49:77–79, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Weinsier RL, Bacon J, Butterworth CE Jr: Central venous alimentation: A prospective study of the frequency of metabolic abnormalities among medical and surgical patients. J Parent Extracorp Nutrition 6:421–425, 1982.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Inadomi DW, Kopple JD: Fluid and electrolyte disorders in total parenteral nutrition. In: MM Maxwell, CR Kleeman, RG Narins eds, Clinicial Disorders of Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism. McGraw-Hill, New York pp 945–967, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  208. Squires RD, Huth EJ: Experimental potassium depletion in normal human subjects: I. Relation of ionic intakes to the renal conservation of potassium. J Clin Invest 38:1134–1148, 1959.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Grim CE, Luft FC, Miller JZ, Meneely JR, Batterbee HD, Harnes CG, Dahl LK: Racial differences in blood pressure in Evans County, Georgia. Relationship to sodium and potassium intake and plasma renin activity. J Chron Dis 33:87–94, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Knochel JP: Diuretic-induced hypokalemia. Am J Med 77(5A):18–27, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Knochel JP: Complications of total parenteral nutrition. Kidney Int 27:489–496, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Oster JR: The binge-purge syndrome: A common albeit unappreciated cause of acid-base and fluid-electrolyte disturbances. South Med J 80:58–67, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Warren SE, Steinberg GM: Acid-base and electrolyte disturbances in anorexia nervosa. Am J Psychiat 136:415–418, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Pope HG Jr, Hudson JI, Yurgelun-Todd D: Anorexia nervosa and bulimia among 300 suburban women shoppers. Am J Psychiat 141:292–294, 1984.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Mitchell JE, Hatsukami D, Eckert ED, Pyle RL: Characteristics of 275 patients with bulimia. Am J Psychiatry 142:482–485, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Gonzalez JJ, Owens W, Ungaro PC, Werk EE, Wentz PW: Clay ingestion: A rare cause of hypokalemia. Ann Intern Med 97:65–66, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Narins RG, Jones ER, Stom MC, Rudnick MR, Basti CP: Diagnostic strategies in disorders of fluid, electrolyte and acid-base homeostasis. Am J Med 72:469–520, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  218. Knochel JP, Reed G: Disorders of heat regulation. In: MH Maxwell, CR Kleeman, RG Narins, eds, Clinical Disorders of Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 1197–1232, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  219. Koht A, Cane R, Cerullo LJ: Serum potassium levels during prolonged hypothermia. Intensive Care Med 9:275–277, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Slavin RE, Dias MA, Sarai R: Cytosine arabinoside induced gastrointestinal toxic alterations in sequential chemother-apeutic protocols: A clinical pathologic study of 33 patients. Cancer 42:1747–1759, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Davis JE, Scavey PW, Sessions JT Jr: Villous adenomas of the rectum and sigmoid colon with severe electrolyte depletion. Ann Surg 155:806–816, 1962.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Oster JR, Materson BJ, Rogers AI: Laxative abuse syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 74:451–458, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Krefs GJ, Fortran JS: Diarrhea. In: JS Schleisinger, MH Fortran, eds, Gastrointestinal Disease. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 811–829, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  224. Rocher LL, Tannen RL: The clinical spectrum of renal tubular acidosis. Ann Rev Med 37:319–331, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Beigelman PM: Potassium in severe diabetic ketoacidosis. Am J Med 54:419–420, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Soler NG, Dixon K, Bennett MA, Fitzgerald MG, Malins JM: Potassium balance during treatment of diabetic ketocidosis. Lancet 2:665–667, 1972.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. O’Regan, Carson S, Chesney RW, Drummond KN: Electrolyte and acid-base disturbances in the management of leukemia. Blood 49:345–353, 1977.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Braden GL, Germain MJ, Fitzgibbons JP: Impaired potassium and magnesium homeostasis in acute tubulo-intersititial nephritis. Nephron 41:273–278, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Montoliu J Botey A, Trilla A, Revert L: Pseudoprimary aldosteronism from the topical application of 9-alpha-fluoroprednisolone to the skin. Clin Nephrol 22:262–266, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Gilli M, Cocito D: Hypokalemic myopathy caused by fluoroprednisolone in a nasal spray. Observations in 2 cases. Minerva Med 74:1463–1467, 1983.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Cuspidi C, Gelosa M, Moroni E, Sampieri L: Pseudo-Conn’s syndrome after habitual ingestion of liquorice. Report on various clinical cases. Minerva Med 72:825–830, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Ganguli PC, Mohamed SD: Long-term therapy with carbenoxolone in the prevention of recurrence of gastric ulcer. Natural history and evolution of important side-effects and measures to avoid them. Scand J Gastroenterology 65:63–71, 1980.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Takeda R, Morimoto S, Uchida K, Nakai T, Miyamoto M, Hashiba T, Yoshimitsu K, Kin KS, Miwa V: Prolonged pseudoaldosteronism induced by glycyrrhizin. Endocrinol Jpn 26:541–547, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Wang C, Chan TK, Yeung RT, Coghlan JP, Scoggins BA, Stockigt JR: The effect of triamterene and sodium balance on renin, aldosterone, and erythrocyte sodium transport in Liddle’s syndrome, J Clin Endocrinol Metab 52:1027–1032, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Keating MJ, Sethi MR, Bodey GP, Samaan NA: Hypocalcemia with hypoparathyroidism and renal tubular dysfunction associated with aminoglycoside therapy. Cancer 39:1410–1414, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Zaloga GP, Chernow B, Pock A, Wood B, Zartitsky A, Zucker A: Hypomagnesemia is a common complication of aminoglycoside therapy. Surg Gynecol Obstet 158:561–565, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Schwartz JS, Kempa JS, Vasilomanolakis EC, Szidon JP, Coe FL, Jao W: Viomycin-induced electrolyte abnormalities. Repiration 40:284–292, 1980.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Steiner RW, Omachi AS: A Bartter’s-like syndrome from capreomycin, and a similar gentamicin tubulopathy. Am J Kidney Dis 7:245–249, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Cheng JT, Kahn T: Potassium wasting and other renal tubular defects with rifampin nephrotoxicity. Am J Nephrology 4:379–382, 1984.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Brunner FP, Frick PG: Hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis and hypernatremia to “massive” sodium penicillin therapy. Br Med J 4:550–552, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. Qian SZ: Gossypol-hypokalaemia interrelationships. Int J Androl 8:313–324, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Granerus AK, Jagenurg R, Svanborg A: Kaliuretic effect of L-DOPA treatment in Parkinsonian patients. Acta Med Scand 201:291–297, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Dirks JH, Sutton RAL (eds): Diuretics: Physiology, Pharmacology, and Clinical Use. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  244. Morgan DB, Davidson C: Hypokalemia and diuretics: An analysis of publications. Br Med J 2:905–908, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  245. Lemieux G, Beauchemin M, Vinay P, Gougoux A: Hypokalemia during the treatment of arterial hypertension with diuretics. Can Med Assoc J 122:905–907, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. Kassirer JP, Harrington JT: Diuretics and potassium metabolism. A reassessment of the need, effectiveness and safety of potassium therapy. Kidney Int 11:505–515, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. Papedemetriou V, Freis ED: In: Whelton PK, Whelton A, Walker WG, eds, Potassium in Cardiovascular and Renal Medicine. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 281–292, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  248. Licht JM, Haley RJ, Pugh B, Lewis SB: Diuretic regimens in essential hypertension: A comparsion of hypokalemic effects, B.P. control and cost. Arch Intern Med 143:1694–1699, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  249. Reddy GV, Schamroth L, Schamroth CL: Tall and peaked U-waves in hypokalemia. Chest 91:605–67, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  250. Sundam S, Burma DP, Vaish SK: Digoxin toxicity and electrolytes: A correlative study. Acta Cardiol (Bruxelles) 38:115–123, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  251. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial Research Group: Multiple risk factor intervention trial: Risk factor changes and mortality results. JAMA 248:1465–1477, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  252. Helgeland A: Treatment of mild hypertension: A five year controlled drug trial. The Oslo study. Am J Med 69:725–732, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  253. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents: Effects of treatment on morbidity in hypertension. JAMA 213:1143–1152, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  254. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial Research Group: Baseline rest electrocardiographic abnormalities, antihypertensive treatment, and mortality in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Am J Cardiol 55:1–15, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  255. Amery A, Birkenhager W, Brixho P, Bulpitt C, Clement D, Deruyttere M, De Schaepdryver A, Dollery C, Fagard R, Forette F, Forte J, Hamdy R, Henry J, Joossens J, Leonetti G, Lund-Johansen P, O’Malley K, Petrie J, Strasser T, Tuomilehto J, Williams B: Mortality and morbidity results from the European Working Party on High Blood Pressure in the Elderly Trial. Lancet 1:134–1354, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  256. Holland OB, Nixon JV, Kuhnert L: Diuretic-induced ventricular ectopic activity. Am J Med 70:762–768, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  257. Caralis PV, Materson BJ, Perez-Stable E: Potassium and diuretic-induced ventricular arrhythmias in ambulatory hypertensive patients. Mineral Electrolyte Metab 10:148–153, 1984.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  258. Holland OB: Diuretic-induced ventricular arrhythmias. In: Whelton PK, Whelton A, Walker WG, eds, Potassium in Cardiovascular and Renal Medicine. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 255–260, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  259. Whelton PK: Thiazide-associated cardiac arrhythmias: Experience in the general population. In: Whelton PK, Whelton A, Walker WG, eds, Potassium in Cardiovascular and Renal Medicine. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 269–280, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  260. Hollifield JW: Thiazide diuretics, hypokalemia, and cardiac arrhythmias. Am J Med 77(5A):28–32, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. Parker M, Gottlieb SS, Blum MA: Immediate and long-term pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying the genesis of sudden cardiac death in patients with congestive heart failure. Am J Med 82(3A):4–10, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  262. Cooper WD, Vandenburg MJ: Relationship between initial serum potassium values and cardiac arrhythmias in patients with acute myocardial infarction. In: Whelton PK, Whelton A, Walker WG, eds, Potassium in Cardiovascular and Renal Medicine. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 171–186, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  263. Solomon, RJ: Importance of potassium in the development of arrhythmias during acute myocardial infarction. In: Whelton PK, Whelton A, Walker WG, eds, Potassium in Cardiovascular and Renal Medicine. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 187–192, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  264. Reid JL: Catecholamines and hypokalemia during and after myocardial infarction. In: Whelton PK, Whelton A, Walker WG, eds, Potassium in Cardiovascular and Renal Medicine. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 203–218, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  265. Nordrehaug JE: Association between hypokalemia and cardiac arrhythmias in patients with acute myocardial infarction. In: Whelton PK, Whelton A, Walker WG, eds, Potassium in Cardiovascular and Renal Medicine. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 193–202, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  266. Harrington JT: Are physicians obsessed with the treatment of hypokalemia? In: Whelton PK, Whelton A, Walker WG, eds, Potassium in Cardiovascular and Renal Medicine. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 479–486, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  267. Harrington JT, Isner JM, Kassirer JP: Our national obsession with potassium. Am J Med 73:155–159, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  268. Nordrehaug JE: Hypokalemia, arrythmias, and early prognosis in acute myocardial infarction. Acta Med Scand 217:299–306, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  269. Kassirer JD, Harrington JT: Diuretics and potassium metabolism: A reassessment of the need, effectiveness, and safety of potassium therapy. Kidney Int 11:105, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  270. Kassirer JP, Harrington JT: Fending off the potassium pushers. N Engl J Med 312:785–787, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. Flamenbaum W: Diuretic use in the elderly: Potential for diuretic-induced hypokalemia. Am J Cardiol 57:38A–43A, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Madias JE, Madias NE, Gavras HP: Nonarrhythmogenicity of diuretic-induced hypokalemia. Its evidence in patients with uncomplicated hypertension. Arch Intern Med 144: 2171–2176, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. Caralis PV, Perez-Stable E: Electrolyte abnormalities and ventricular arrhythmias. Drugs 31 (Suppl 4):85–100, 1986.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  274. Materson BJ, Caralis PV: The continuing controversy over diuretic-associated ventricular ectopy and potassium supplements. In: JB Puschett, A Greenburg, eds, Diuretics. II: Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Clinical Applications. Elsevier Science, New York, pp 669–676, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  275. Norwegian Multicenter Study Group: Timolol-induced reduction in mortality and reinfarction in patients surviving acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 304:801–807, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  276. Beta-Blocker Heart Attack Trial Research Group: A randomized trial of propranalol in patients with acute myocardial infarction. I. Mortality results. JAMA 247:1707–1714, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  277. Tannen RL: Nephrology Forum. Diuretic-induced hypokalemia. Kidney Int 28:988–1000, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  278. Stanazek WF, Romankiewicz JA: Current approach to management of potassium deficiency. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 19:176–84, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  279. Luce J: Potassium supplementation. Am J Clin Nutrit 33: 2053–2062, 1980.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  280. Griggs RC, Resnick J, Engel WK: Intravenous treatment of hypokalemic periodic paralysis. Arch Neurol 40:539–540, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  281. Abramson E, Arky: Diabetic acidosis with initial hypokalemia. JAMA 196:401–403, 1966.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  282. Sehen RJ, Arieli: Administration of potassium by subcutaneous infusion in the elderly patients. Br Med J 285: 1167–1168, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  283. Bergman N, Vellar I: Potential life threatening variations of drug concentrations in intravenous infusion systems. Potassium chloride, insulin and heparin. Med J Aust 2:270–272, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  284. DeFronzo RA, Bia M: Intravenous potassium chloride therapy. JAMA 245:2446, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  285. Pullen H, Doig A, Lambie AT: Intensive intravenous potassium replacement therapy. Lancet 2:809, 1967.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  286. Swales JD: Hypokalemia and the electrocardiogram. Lancet 2:1365, 1964.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  287. Kosman ME: Management of potassium problems during long term diuretic therapy. JAMA 230:743–748, 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  288. Schwartz WB, van Ypersele de Strihou C, Kassirer SP: Role of anions in metabolic alkalosis and potassium deficiency. N Engl J Med 279:630–639, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  289. McMahon GF, Ryan JR, Akdamar K, Ertan A: Upper gastrointestinal lesions after potassium chloride supplements: A controlled clinical trial. Lancet 2:1059–1060, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  290. Skoutakis VA, Acchiardo SR, Wojciechowski N, Carter C, Melikan AP, Cheremos AN: The comparative bioavailability of liquid wax-matrix and the micro-encapsulated preparations of potassium chloride. J Clin Pharmacol 25:619–621, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  291. Ben-Ishay D, Engleman K: Bioavailability of potassium from a slow-release tablet. Clin Pharmacol Therap 142: 250–258, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  292. Morgan TO: Potassium replacement: Supplements or potassium-sparing diuretics? Practical Therapeutics Drugs 18: 218–25, 1979.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  293. Jackson PR, Ramsay LE: Relative potency of spironolactone, triamterence and potassium chloride in thiazide-induced hypokalemia. Br J Clin Pharmacol 14:257–263, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  294. Sjoberg WE, Kreisle JE: Hyperkalemia and sudden death during spironolactone (Aldactone) therapy. Tex State J Med 58:1022–1024, 1962.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  295. Feinfeld DA, Carvounis CP: Fatal hyperkalemia and hyperchloremic acidosis. Association with spironolactone in the absence of renal impairment. JAMA 240:1516, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  296. Goulon M, Raphael JC, Simon N: Paralysie périodique familiale avec hypokalemic. Etudes hémodynamiques et métaboliques: Effets favorable de l’acétazolamide. Rev Neurol (Paris) 134:655–672, 1978.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  297. Dalakas MC, Engel WK: Treatment of “permanent” muscle weakness in familial hypokalemic periodic paralysis. Muscle Nerve 6:182–186, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  298. Johnsen T: Effect upon insulin, glucose and potassium concentrations of acetazolamide during attacks of familial periodic hypokalemic paralysis. Acta Neurol Scand 56:533–541, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  299. Johnsen T: Trial of the prophylactic effect of diazoxide in the treatment of familial periodic hypokalemia. Acta Neurol Scand 56:525–532, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  300. Johnsen T: Treatment of familial periodic hypokalemia with propranolol. Acta Neurol Scand 56:613–619, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  301. Yeung RTT, Tse TF: Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis. Effect of propranolol. Am J Med 57:584–590. 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  302. Conway MJ, Siebel JA, Eaton RP: Thyrotoxicosis and periodic paralysis: Improvement with beta blockade. Ann Intern Med 81:332–326, 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  303. Tannen RL: Potassium metabolism. In: HC Gonick, eds, Current Nephrology, Vol 6. John Wiley and sons, New York, pp 151–186, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  304. Korff JM, Siebens AW, Gill JR: Correction of hypokalemia corrects the abnormalities in erythrocyte sodium transport in Bartter’s syndrome. J Clin Invest 74:1724–1729, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  305. Uribarri J, Alveranga D, Oh MS, Kukar NK, Carroll HJ: Bartter’s syndrome due to a defect in salt reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule. Nephron 40:52–56, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  306. Boer P, Hené RJ, Koomans HA, Nieuwenhuis MG, Geyskens GG, Dorhout Mees EJ: Blood and extracellular fluid volume in patients with Bartter’s syndrome. Arch Intern med 143:1902–1905, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  307. Rudin A, Sjogren B, Aurell M: Low urinary calcium excretion in Bartter’s syndrome. N Engl J Med 310:1190, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  308. Tannen RL: Potassium metabolism. In: HC Gonick, eds, Current Nephrology, Vol 9. Year Book Medical Publishers, Chicago, pp 359–399, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  309. Garrick R, Ziyadeh FN, Jorkasky D, Goldfarb S: Bartter’s syndrome: A unifying hypothesis. Am J Nephrology 5:379–384, 1985.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  310. Proessmans W, Devlieger H, Van Assche A, Eggermont E, Lynen P: Bartter’s syndrome in two siblings. Antenatal and neonatal observation. Int J Pediat Nephrology 6:63–70, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  311. Jamison RL, Ross JC, Kempson RL, Sufit CR: Surreptitious diuretic ingestion and pseudo-Bartter’s syndrome. Am J Med 73:142–147, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  312. Davidson AG, Snodgrass GJA: Cystic fibrosis mimicking Bartter’s syndrome. Acta Paediatr Scand 72:781–783, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  313. Favre H, Glasson P, Flory ED, Dray F, Vallotton MB: Bartter’s syndrome: Recurrence in the course of a treatment inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. Schweiz Med Wochenshcr 109:142–147, 1979.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  314. Barbour GL, Day JO: Asymptomatic Bartter’s syndrome. Southern Med J 71:1341–1344; 1349, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  315. Kornerup HJ, Pedersen EB, Petersen VP: Bartter’s syndrome without hyperplasia of the juxtaglomerular apparatus, treated with indomethacin. Acta Med Scand 204:235–239, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  316. Hené RJ, Koomans HA, Boer P, Dorhout Mees EJ: Long-term treatment of Bartter’s syndrome with Captopril. Br Med J 285:695, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  317. Hené RJ, Koomans HA, Dorhout Mees EJ, Stolps AVD, Verhoef GEG, Boer P: Correction of hypokalemia in Bartter’s syndrome by enalapril. Am J Kidney Dis 9:200–205, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  318. Griffing GT, Komanicky P, Aurecchia SA, Sindler BH, Melby JC: Amiloride in Bartter’s syndrome. Clin Pharmacol Ther 31:713–718, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  319. Griffing GT, Aurecchia SA, Sindler BM, Melby JC: The effect of amiloride on the renin-aldosterone system in primary aldosteronism and Bartter’s syndrome. J Clin Pharmacol 22:505–512, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  320. Griffing FT, Melby JC: The therapeutic use of a new potassium-sparing diuretic, amiloride, and a converting enzyme inhibitor, MK-421, in preventing hypokalemia associated with primary and secondary hyperaldosteronism. Clin Exper Hypertension 5A:779–801, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  321. Blether SL, Van Wyk JJ, Lorentz WB, Jennnette JC: Reversal of Bartter’s syndrome by renal transplantation in a child with focal, segmental glomerular sclerosis. Am J Med Sci 289:31–36, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  322. Materson BJ: Diuretic-associated hypokalemia. Arch Intern med 145:1966–1967, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  323. Hollenberg NK, Bannon JA: The PACT Study: Postmarketing surveillance in 47,465 patients treated with Maxzide (triamterene/hydrochlorothiazide). Am J Med 80(4A):30–36, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  324. Robertson JIS: Diuretics, potassium depletion, and the risk of arrhythmias. Eur Heart J 5A:25–28, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  325. Lucas AR: “Pigging out.” JAMA 247:82, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  326. Whang R: Magnesium deficiency: Pathogenesis, prevalence and clinical implication. Am J Med 82(3A):24–29, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  327. Whang R, Oei TO, Aikawai JK, Watanabe A, Vannatta J, Fryer A, Markanich M: Predictors of clinical hypomagnesemia. Hypokalemia, hypophosphatemia, hyponatremia, and hypocalcemia. Arch Intern med 144:1794–1796, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  328. Boyd JC, Bruns DE, Wills MR: Frequency of hypomagnesemia in hypokalemic states. Clin Chem 29:178–179, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  329. Davidov ME, Becker FE, Hollifield JW: Serum magnesium and potassium levels in hypertensive patients after a therapeutic switch from hydrochlorothiazide plus a potassium supplement to Maxzide. Am J Med 82(3A):48–51, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  330. Oster JR: Magnesium. Southern Med 778:1111–1120, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  331. Dychner T: Potassium/magnesium depletion: Is your patient at risk of sudden death? Am J Med 82(3A):52, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  332. Jureidini KF: Prevention of cis-platinum nephrotoxicity with amiloride hydrochloride. Second Asian Pacific Congress Nephrology, p 41, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  333. Morrison J, Michelson EL, Brown S, Morganroth J: Mechanism and prevention of cardiac arrhythmias in chronic hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 17:811–819, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  334. Vaamonde CA, Michael UF, Metzger RA, Carroll KE: Complications of acute peritoneal dialysis. J Chronic Dis 28:637–659, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  335. Valk TW, Swartz RD, Hsu CH: Peritoneal dialysis in acute renal failure: Analysis of outcome and complications. Dial Transpl 9:48–53, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  336. Spital AH, Sterns RH: Potassium supplementation via the dialysate in continued ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 6:173–176, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Jacques J. Bourgoignie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. James R. Oster
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Guido O. Perez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Dollie F. Green
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Baylor College of Medicine, The Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA

    Wadi N. Suki

  2. Division of Nephrology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA

    Shaul G. Massry

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1991 Kluwer Academic Publishers

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bourgoignie, J.J., Oster, J.R., Perez, G.O., Green, D.F. (1991). Disorders of Potassium Metabolism. In: Suki, W.N., Massry, S.G. (eds) Therapy of Renal Diseases and Related Disorders. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0689-4_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0689-4_4

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-8027-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-0689-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation