Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Prolactin

Normal Physiology

  • Chapter
Diseases of the Pituitary

Part of the book series: Contemporary Endocrinology ((COE,volume 3))

  • 187 Accesses

Abstract

The lactogenic activity of anterior pituitary extracts was first discovered when their effect was observed in mammary glands of pseudopregnant rabbits (1). A similar phenomenon was subsequently observed by several groups in guinea pig mammary glands and in pigeon crop sacs (2,3), and in 1932, the hormone named prolactin was purified from sheep pituitaries (4). However, human prolactin was not identified as distinct from human growth hormone until 1971 (5,6). In 1980, the human prolactin gene was cloned, and later that decade Pit-1 was defined as a tissue-specific transcriptional activating factor for prolactin gene expression (7). The regulation of prolactin synthesis and secretion has been extensively studied, particularly the inhibition by dopamine from the hypothalamus and the stimulation of release in response to suckling. Prolactin has multiple biological actions, including a recently recognized immunoregulatory role (8). The identification of the prolactin receptor as a member of the family of structurally related hematopoietic cytokine receptors, as well as the cloning of receptor isoforms in rodents (9) and in humans (10), may lead to a better understanding of the diversity of actions of prolactin at its target cells.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Stricker P, Grueter F. Action du lobe anterieure de l’hypophyse sur la montee laitesse. C R Soc Biol 1928; 99:1978–1980.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Corner GW. The hormonal control of lactation. I. Non-effect of the corpus luteum. IL Positive action of extracts of the hypophysis. Am J of Physiol 1980; 95:43–55.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Riddle O, Braucher FP. Studies on the physiology of reproduction in birds. Am J of Physiol 1931; 97:614–625.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Riddle O, Bates WR, Dykshorn WS. A new hormone of the anterior pituitary. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1983; 29:1211–1212.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Lewis UJ, Singh RNP, Seavey BK. Human prolactin: Isolation and some properties. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1971; 44:1169–1176.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Hwang P, Guyda H, Friesen H. Purification of human prolactin. J Biol Chem 1972; 247:1955–1958.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Nelson C, Albert VR, Elsholtz HP, Lu LIW, Rosenfeld MG. Activation of cell-specific expression of rat growth hormone and prolactin genes by a common transcription factor. Science 1988; 239:1400–1405.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Clevenger CV, Altmann SW, Prystowsky MB. Requirement of nuclear prolactin for interleukin-2 stimulated proliferation of T lymphocytes. Science 1991; 253:77–79.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Kelly PA, Djiane J, Postei-Vinay M-C, Edery M. The prolactin/growth hormone receptor family. Endocrine Rev 1991; 12:235–251.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Clevenger CV, Chang W-P, Ngo W, Pasha TLM, Montone KT, Tomaszewski JE. Expression of prolactin and prolactin receptor in human breast carcinoma. Am J Pathol 1995; 146:695–705.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Takayama Y, Rand-Weaver M, Kawauchi H, Ono M. Gene structure of chum salmon somatolactin, a presumed pituitary hormone of the growth hormone/prolactin family. Mol Endocrinol 1991; 5:778–786.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Cooke NE, Liebhaber SA. Molecular biology of the growth hormone-prolactin gene system. Vitamins Hormones 1995; 50:385–459.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Truong AT, Duez C, Belayew A, Renard A. Isolation and characterization of the human prolactin gene. EMBO J 1984; 3:429–437.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Hiraoka Y, Tatsumi K, Shiozawa M, Aiso S, Fukasawa T, Yasuda K. A placenta-specific 5′ non-coding exon of human prolactin. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1991; 75:71–80.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Gellersen B, DiMattia GE, Friesen HG, Bohnet HG. Prolactin mRNA from human decidua differs from pituitary prolactin mRNA but resembles the IM-9-P3 lymphoblast prolactin transcript. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1989; 64:127–139.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. DiMattia GE, Gellersen B, Duckworth ML, Friesen HG. Human prolactin gene expression. J Biol Chem 1990;265:16412–16421.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Castrillo J-L, Theill LE, Karin M. Function of the homeodomain protein GHF-1 in pituitary cell proliferation. Science 1991; 253:197–199.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Crenshaw EB, Kalla D, Simmons DM, Swanson LW, Rosenfeld MG. Cell-specific expression of the prolactin gene in transgenic mice is controlled by synergistic interactions between promoter and enhancer elements. Genes & Dev 1989; 3:959–972.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Waterman ML, Adler S, Nelson C, Greene GL, Evans RM, Rosenfeld MG. A single domain of the estrogen receptor confers deoxyribonucleic acid binding and transcriptional activation of the rat prolactin gene. Mol Endocrinol 1988; 2:14–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Day RN, Maurer RA. Thyroid hormone-responsive elements of the prolactin gene: evidence for both positive and negative regulation. Mol Endocrinol 1989; 3:931–938.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Somasekhar MB, Gorski J. Two elements of the rat prolactin 5′ flanking region are required for its regulation by estrogen and glucocorticoids. Gene 1988; 69:13–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Keech CA, Gutierrez-Hartmann A. Analysis of rat prolactin promoter sequences that mediate pituitary-specific and 3′,5′-cyclic adenosine monophosphate-regulated gene expression in vivo. Mol Endocrinol 1989; 3:832–839.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Keech CA, Jackson SM, Siddiqui SK, Ocran KW, Gutierrez-Hartmann A. Cyclic adenosine 3′5′-monophosphate activation of the rat prolactin promoter is restricted to the pituitary-specific cell type. Mol Endocrinol 1992; 6:2059–2070.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Iverson RA, Day KH, d’Emden M, Day RN, Maurer RA. Clustered point mutation analysis of the rat prolactin promoter. Mol Endocrinol 1990; 4:1564–1571.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. McCormick A, Brady H, Fukushima J, Karin M. The pituitary-specific regulatory gene GHF1 contains a minimal cell type-specific promoter centered around its TATA box. Genes & Dev 1991; 4:1490–1503.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Lew AM, Elsholtz HR A dopamine-responsive domain in the N-terminal sequence of Pit-1. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:7156–7160.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Lee BJ, Kim JH, Lee CK, Kang HM, Kim HC, Kang SG. Changes in mRNA levels of a pituitary-specific trans-acting factor, Pit-1, and prolactin during the rat estrous cycle. Eur J Endocrinol 1995; 132:771–776.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Yan G-Z, Bancroft C. Mediation by calcium of thyrotropin-releasing hormone action on the prolactin promoter via transcription factor pit-1. Mol Endocrinol 1991; 5:1488–1497.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Gellersen B, Kempf R, Telgmann R, DiMattia GE. Nonpituitary human prolactin gene transcription is independent of pit-1 and differentially controlled in lymphocytes and in endometrial stroma. Mol Endocrinol 1994; 8:356–373.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Huang JR, Tseng L, Bischof P, Janne OA. Regulation of prolactin production by progestin, estrogen, and relaxin in human endometrial stromal cells. Endocrinology 1987; 121:2011–2017.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Handwerger S, Harman I, Golander A, Handwerger DA. Prolactin release from perifused human decidual expiants; Effects of decidual prolactin-releasing factor (PRL-RF) and prolactin-release-inhibitory factor (PRL-IF). Placenta 1992; 13:55–62.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Cooke NE, Coit D, Shine J, Baxter JD, Martial JA. Human prolactin, cDNA structural analysis and evolutionary comparisons. J Biol Chem 1981; 256:4007–4016.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Sinha YN, Jacobsen BP. Structural and immunologic evidence for a small molecular weight (“21K”) variant of prolactin. Endocrinology 1988; 123:1364–1370.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Estes PA, Cooke NE, Liebhaber SA. A native RNA secondary structure controls alternative splice-site selection and generates two growth hormone isoforms. J Biol Chem 1992; 267:14902–14908.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Maurer RA. Dopaminergic inhibition of prolactin synthesis and prolactin messenger RNA accumulation in cultured pituitary cells. J Biol Chem 1980; 255:8092–8097.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Onali P, Eva C, Olianas MC, Schwawrtz JP, Costa E. In GH3 pituitary cells, acetylcholine and vasoactive intestinal peptide antagonistically modulate adenylate cyclase, cyclic AMP content, and prolactin secretion. Mol Pharmacol 1983; 24:189–194.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Lamberts SWJ, MacLeod RM. Regulation of prolactin secretion at the level of the lactotroph. Physiol Rev 1990;70:279–318.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Horseman ND, Yu-Lee L. Transcriptional regulation by the helix bundle peptide hormones: growth hormone, prolactin, and hematopoietic cytokines. Endocrine Rev 1994; 15:627–649.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Lewis UJ, Singh RNP, Sinha YN, Vanderlaan WP. Glycosylated human prolactin. Endocrinology 1985; 116:359–363.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Markoff E, Sigel MB, Lacour N, Seavey BK, Friesen HG, Lewis UJ. Glycosylation selectively alters the biological activity of prolactin. Endocrinology 1988; 123:1303–1306.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Brue T, Caruso E, Morange I, Hoffmann T, Evrin M, Gunz G, Benkirane M, Jaquet P. Immunoradiometric analysis of circulating human glycosylated and nonglycosylated prolactin forms: Spontaneous and stimulated secretions. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992; 75:1338–1344.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Andries M, Tilemans D, Denef C. Isolation of cleaved prolactin variants that stimulate DNA synthesis in specific cell types in rat pituitary cell aggregates in culture. Biochem J 1992; 281:393–400.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Clapp C. Analysis of the proteolytic cleavage of prolactin by the mammary gland and liver of the rat: characterization of the cleaved and 16K forms. Endocrinology 1987; 121:2055–2064.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Clapp C, Weiner RI. A specific high affinity saturable binding site for the 16-kilodalton fragment of prolactin on capillary endothelial cells. Endocrinology 1992; 130:1380–1386.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Clapp C, Martial JA, Guzman RC, Rentier-Delrue F, Weiner RI. The 16-kD N-terminal fragment of human prolactin is a potent inhibitor of angiogenesis. Endocrinology 1993; 133:1292–1299.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Oetting WS, Tuazon PT, Traugh JA, Walker AM. Phosphorylation of prolactin. J Biol Chem 1986; 261:1649–1652.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Mastro RM, Dannies PS. Lack of correlation of distribution of prolactin (PRL) charge isoforms with induction of PRL storage. Endocrinology 1995; 136:69–74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Garnier PE, Aubert ML, Kaplan ASL, Grumbach MM. Heterogeneity of pituitary and plasma prolactin in man: Decreased affinity of “big” prolactin in a radioreceptor assay and evidence for its secretion. Endocrinology 41978; 7:1273–1279.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Hattori N, Ishihara T, Ikekubo K, Moridera K, Hino M, Kurahachi H. Autoantibody to human prolactin in patients with idiopathic hyperprolactinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992; 75:1226–1229.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Lee DW, Markoff E. Synthesis and release of glycosylated prolactin by human decidua in vitro. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 62:990–993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Handwerger S, Wilson S, Conn PM. Different subcellular storage sites for decidual- and pituitary-derived prolactin: Possible explanation for differences in regulation. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1984; 37:83–87.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Halmi S, Parson JA, Earlandsen SL, Duello T. Prolactin and growth hormone cells in the human hypophysis. A study with immunoenzyme histochemistry and differential staining. Cell Tissue Res 1975; 158:497–507.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Hinkel PM, Scammel JG, Shanshala ED II. Prolactin and secretogranin-II, a marker for the regulated pathway, are secreted in parallel by pituitary GH4C1 cells. Endocrinology 1992; 130:3503–3511.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Walker AM, Farquhar MG. Preferential release of newly synthesized prolactin granules is the result of functional heterogeneity among mammotrophs. Endocrinology 1980; 107:1095–1104.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Molitch ME, Raiti S, Baumann G, Belknap S, Reichlin S. Pharmacokinetic studies of highly purified human prolactin in normal human subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 65:299–304.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Cooper BS, Ridgway EC, Kliman B. Metabolic clearance and production rates of prolactin in man. J Clin Invest 1979; 64:1669–1680.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Sievertsen GD, Lim VS, Nakawatase C, Frohman LA. Metabolic clearance and secretion rates of human prolactin in normal subjects and in patients with chronic renal failure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980; 50:846–852.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Bratusch-Marrain P, Bjorkman O. Hepatic disposal of endogenous growth hormone and prolactin in man. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 1979; 9:257–260.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Neill JD, Frawley LS. Detection of hormone release from individual cells in mixed populations using a reverse hemolytic plaque assay. Endocrinology 1983; 112:1135–1138.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Boockfor FR, Frawley SL. Functional variations among prolactin cells from different pituitary regions. Endocrinology 1987; 120:874–879.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Sinha YN, Selby FW, Lewis UJ, Vanderlaan WP. A homologous radioimmunoassay for human prolactin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1973; 36:509–516.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Tanaka T, Shiu RPC, Gout PW, Beer CT, Noble RL, Friesen HG. A new sensitive and specific bioassay for lactogenic hormones: Measurement of prolactin and growth hormone in human serum. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980; 51:1058–1063.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Frawley LS, Clark CL, Schoderbek WC. A novel bioassay for lactogenic activity. Demonstration that prolactin cells differ from one another in bio-and immuno-potencies of secreted hormone. Endocrinology 1986; 119:2867–2869.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Mulchahey JJ, Jaffe RB. Detection of a potential progenitor cell in the human fetal pituitary that secretes both growth hormone and prolactin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 66:24–32.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Poindexter AN, Buttram VC, Besch P. Circulating prolactin levels, I. Normal females. Int J Fertil 1977; 22:1–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Samuels MH, Henry P, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters B, Lillehei K, Ridgway EC. Pulsatile prolactin secretion in hyperprolactinemia due to presumed pituitary stalk interruption. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 73:1289–1293.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Shin SH, Reifel CW. Adenohypophysis has an inherent property for pulsatile prolactin secretion. Neuroendocrinol 1981; 32:139–144.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Stewart JK, Clifton DK, Koerker DJ, Rogol AD. Pulsatile release of growth hormone and prolactin from the primate pituitary in vitro. Endocrinology 1985; 116:1–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Inaudi P, Genazzani AD, Reymond MJ, Lemarchand-Béraud T, Rey F. Pulsatile secretion of gonadotropins and prolactin during the follicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle: Analysis of instantaneous secretion rat and secretory concomitance. Fertil Steril 1992; 58:51–59.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Parker DC, Rossman LG, Vanderlaan ER Relation of sleep-entrained human prolactin release to REM-nonREM cycles. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1974; 38:646–651.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Veldhuis JD, Johnson ML. Operating characteristics of the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis in men: Circadian, ultradian, and pulsatile release of prolactin and its temporal coupling with luteinizing hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 67:116–123.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Obal FJ, Payne L, Kacsoh B, Opp M, Kapas L, Grosvenor CE, Krueger JM. Involvement of prolactin in the REM sleep-promoting activity of systemic vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). Brain Res 1994; 645:143–149.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Carlson HE, Hyman DB, Blitzer MG. Evidence for an intracerebral action of phenylalanine in stimulation of prolactin secretion: Interaction of large neutral amino acids. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990; 70:814–816.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Noel GL, Suh HK, Stone SJG, Frantz AE. Human prolactin and growth hormone release during surgery and other conditions of stress. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1973; 35:840–851.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Gala RR. The physiology and mechanisms of the stress induced changes in prolactin secretion in the rat. Life Sci 1990; 46:1407–1420.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Pontiroli AE, Baio G, Stella L, Crescenti A, Girardi AM. Effects of naloxone on prolactin luteinizing hormone, and Cortisol responses to surgical stress in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1982; 55:378–380.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Kjaer A, Knigge U, Olsen L, Vilhardt H, Warberg J. Mediation of the stress-induced prolactin release by hypothalamic histaminergic neurons and the possible involvement of vasopressin in this response. Endocrinology 1991; 128:103–110.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Maddox PR, Jones DL, Mansel RE. Basal prolactin and total lactogenic hormone levels by microbioassay and immunoassay in normal human sera. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1991; 125:621–627.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Tennekoon KH, Lenton EA. Early evening prolactin rise in women with regular cycles. J Reprod Fertil 1985; 73:523–527.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Rigg LA, Lein A, Yen SSC. Pattern of increase in circulating prolactin levels during human gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1977; 129:454–456.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Rigg LA, Yen SSC. Multiphasic prolactin secretion during parturition in human subjects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1977; 128:215–218.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Ostrom DM. A review of the hormone prolactin during lactation. Prog Food Nutr Sci 1990; 14:1–43.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Kremer JA, Borm G, Schellekens LA, Thomas CM, Rolland R. Pulsatile secretion of luteinizing hormone and prolactin in lactating and nonlactating women and the response to naltrexone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 72:294–300.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Hill JB, Nagy GM, Frawley LS. Suckling unmasks the stimulatory effect of dopamine on prolactin release: possible role for alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone as a mammotrope responsiveness factor. Endocrinology 1989; 125:334–341.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Battin DA, Marrs RP, Fleiss PM, Mishell DR Effect of suckling on serum prolactin, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and estradiol during prolonged lactation. Obstet Gynecol 1985; 65:785–788.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Shanti AS, Subramanian MG, Savoy-Moore RT, Kruger ML, Moghissi KS. Attenuation of the magnitude of suckling-induced prolactin release with advancing lactation: Mechanisms. Life Sci 1995; 56:259–266.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Tay CCK, Glasier AF, McNeilly AS. The 24 h pattern of pulsatile luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone and prolactin release during the first 8 weeks of lactational amenorrhoea in breastfeeding women. Hum Reprod 1992; 7:951–958.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Erskine MS. Prolactin release after mating and genitosensory stimulation in females. Endocrine Rev 1995; 16(4):508–528.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Everett J. Luteotrophic function of autografts of the rat hypophysis. Endocrinology 1954; 54:685–690.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Gibbs DM, Neill JD. Dopamine levels in hypophysial stalk blood in the rat are sufficient to inhibit prolactin secretion in vivo. Endocrinology 1978; 102:1895–1900.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Quigley ME, Judd SJ, Gilliland GB, Yen SC. Functional studies of dopamine control of prolactin secretion in normal women and women with hyperprolactinemic pituitary microadenoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980; 50:994–998.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Ben-Jonathan N. Dopamine: a prolactin-inhibiting hormone. Endocrine Rev 1985; 6:564–589.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Baertschi AJ. Portal vascular route from hypophysial stalk/neural lobe to adenohypophysis. Am Journal of Physiology 1980; 239:R463-R469.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Cronin MF, Roberts JM, Weiner RI. Dopamine and dihydroergocryptine binding to the anterior pituitary and other brain areas of the rat and sheep. Endocrinology 1978; 103:302–309.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Wood DF, Johnston JM, Johnston DG. Dopamine, the dopamine D2 receptor and pituitary tumours. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1991; 35:455–466.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Swennen L, Denef C. Physiological concentrations of dopamine decrease adenosine 3′5′-monophosphate levels in cultured rat anterior pituitary cells and enriched populations of lactotrophs: Evidence for a causal relationship to inhibition of prolactin release. Endocrinology 1982; 111:398–4105.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Drouva SV, Rerat E, Bihoreau C, Laplante A, Rasolonjanahary R, Clauser H, Kordon C. Dihydropyridine-sensitive calcium channel activity related to prolactin, growth hormone, and luteinizing hormone release from anterior pituitary cells in culture: interactions with somatostatin, dopamine, and estrogens. Endocrinology 1988; 123:2762–2773.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Jarvis WD, Judd AM, MacLeod RM. Attenuation of anterior pituitary phosphoinositide Phosphorylase activity by the D2 dopamine receptor. Endocrinology 1988; 123:2793–2799.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Haisenleder DJ, Yasin M, Marshall JC. Regulation of gonadotropin, thyrotropin subunit, and prolactin messenger ribonucleic acid expression by pulsatile or continuous protein kinase-C stimulation. Endocrinology 1995; 136:13–19.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Haisenleder DJ, Yasin M, Marshall JC. Enhanced effectiveness of pulsatile cAMP in stimulating prolactin and alpha subunit gene expression. Endocrinology 1992; 131:3027–3033.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Haisenleder DJ, Yasin M, Marshall JC. The regulation of prolactin, thyrotropin and gonadotropin subunit gene expression by pulsatile or continuous calcium signals. Endocrinology 1993; 133:2055–2061.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Kidokoro Y. Spontaneous calcium action potentials in a clonal pituitary cell line and their relationship to prolactin secretion. Nature 1975; 258:741–742.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Duvilanski BH, Zambruno C, Seilicovich A, Pisera D, Lasaga M, Del C. Diaz M, Belova N, Rettori V, McCann SM. Role of nitric oxide in control of prolactin release by the adenohypophysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995; 92:170–174.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Schally AV, Redding TW, Arimura A, DuPont A, Linthicum GL. Isolation of gamma-aminobutyric acid from pig hypothalami and demonstration of its prolactin release-inhibiting (PIF) activity in vivo and in vitro. Endocrinology 1977; 100:681–691.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Vincent SR, Hokfelt T, Wu JY. GABA neuron systems in the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Neuro-endocrinol 1982; 34:117–125.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Mulchahey JJ, Neill JD. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels in hypophyseal stalk plasma of rats. Life Sci 1982; 32:453–456.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Grandison L, Guidotti A. Gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor function in rat anterior pituitary: Evidence for control of prolactin release. Endocrinology 1979; 105:754–759.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Nikolics K, Mason AJ, Szonyi E, Ramachandran J, Seeburg PH. A prolactin-inhibiting factor within the precursor for human gonadotropin-releasing hormone. Nature 1985; 316:511–517.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Takahashi K, Ghatei MA, Jones PM, Murphy JK, Lam H-C, O’Halloran AJ, Bloom SR. Endothelin in human brain and pituitary gland: presence on immunoreactive endothelin, endothelin messenger ribonucleic acid, and endothelin receptors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 72:693–699.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Samson WK, Skala KD. Comparison of the pituitary effects of the mammalian endothelins: vasoactive intestinal contractor (endothelin-β, rat endothelin-2) is a potent inhibitor of prolactin secretion. Endocrinology 1992; 130:2964–2970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Tashjian AHJ, Barowsky NJ, Jensen DK. Thyrotropin releasing hormone: direct evidence for stimulation of prolactin production by pituitary cells in culture. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1971; 43:516–523.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Bowers CY, Friesen HG, Hwang P, Guyda HJ, Folkers K. Prolactin and thyrotropin release in man by synthetic pyroglutamyl-histidyl-prolinamide. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1971; 45:1033–1041.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Jacobs LS, Snyder PJ, Utiger RD, Daughaday WH. Prolactin response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in normal subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1973; 36:1069–1073.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Sheward WJ, Fraser HM, Fink G. Effect of immunoneutralization of thyrotrophin-releasing hormone on the release of thyrotrophin and prolactin during suckling or in response to electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus in the anaesthetized rat. J Endocrinol 1985; 106:113–119.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Kato Y, Iwasaki Y, Iwasaki J, Abe H, Yanaihara N, Imura H. Prolactin release by vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in rats. Endocrinology 1978; 103:554–558.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Carrillo AJ, Pool TB, Sharp ZD. Vasoactive intestinal peptide increases prolactin messenger ribonucleic acid content in GH3 cells. Endocrinology 1985; 116:202–206.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Mezey E, Kiss JZ. Vasoactive intestinal peptide-containing neurons in the paraventricular nucleus may participate in regulating prolactin secretion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1985; 82:245–247.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Arnaout MA, Garthwaite TL, Martinson DR. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide is synthesized in anterior pituitary tissue. Endocrinology 1986; 119:2052–2057.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Prysor-Jones RA, Silverlight JJ, Jenkins JS. Vasoactive intestinal peptide increases intracellular free calcium in rat and human pituitary tumour cells in vitro. J Endocrinol 1987; 114:119–123.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Abe H, Engler D, Molitch ME, Bollinger-Gruber J, Reichlin S. Vasoactive intestinal peptide is a physiological mediator of prolactin release in the rat. Endocrinology 1985; 116:1383–1390.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Werner S, Hulting AL, Hokfelt T. Effect of the peptide phi-27 on prolactin release in vitro. Neuroen-docrinol 1983; 37:476–478.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Kaji H, Chihara K, Kita T, Kashio Y, Okimura Y, Fujita T. Administration of antisera to vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and peptide histidine isoleucine attenuates ether-induced prolactin secretion in rats. Neuroendocrinol 1985; 41:529–531.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Kaji H, Chihara C, Abe H, Kita T. Effect of passive immunization with antisera to vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and peptide histidine isoleucine amide on 5-hydroxy-1-tryptophan-induced prolactin release in rats. Endocrinology 1985; 117:1914–1919.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Denef C, Andries M. Evidence for paracrine interaction between gonadotrophs and lactotrophs in pituitary cell aggregates. Endocrinology 1983; 112:813–822.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Shinkai T, Ooka H. Effect of angiotensin II on the proliferation of mammotrophs from the adult rat anterior pituitary in culture. Peptides 1995; 16(1):25–29.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Brandi AM, Barrande G, Lahlou N, Crumeyrolle M, Berthet M, Leblanc P, Peillon F, Li JY. Stimulatory effect of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) on in vitro prolactin secretion and presence of GnRH specific receptors in a subset of human prolactinomas. Eur J Endocrinol 1995; 132:163–170.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Gordon K, Williams RF, Danforth DR, Veldhuis JD, Hodgen GD. GnRH antagonists suppress prolactin release in non-human primates. Contraception 1992; 45:369–378.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Gunnett JW, Freeman ME. The mating-induced release of prolactin: A unique neuroendocrine response. Endocrine Rev 1983; 4:44–61.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Allen DL, Low MJ, Allen RG, Ben-Jonathan N. Identification of two classes of prolactin-releasing factors in intermediate lobe tumors from transgenic mice. Endocrinology 1995; 136:3093–3099.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Boockfor FR, Hoeffler JP, Frawley SL. Estradiol induces a shift in cultured cells that release prolactin or growth hormone. Am Journal of Physiology 1986; 250:103–106.

    Google Scholar 

  131. Stefaneanu L, Kovacs K, Lloyd RV, Scheithauer BW, Young WFJ, Sano T, Jin L. Pituitary lactotrophs and somatotrophs in pregnancy: a correlative in situ hybridization and immunocytochemical study. Virchows Archiv B Cell Pathol 1992; 62:291–296.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Scheithauer BW, Sano T, Kovacs KT, Young WJJ, Ryan N, Randall RV 1990 The pituitary gland in pregnancy. A clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical study of 69 cases. Mayo Clin Proc 1990; 65:461–474.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Maurer RA. Estradiol regulates the transcription of the prolactin gene. J Biol Chem 1982; 257:2133–2135.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Shull JD, Gorski J. The hormonal regulation of prolactin gene expression: An examination of mechanisms controlling prolactin synthesis and the possible relationship of estrogen to these mechanisms. Vitamins Hormones 1986; 43:197–249.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Raymond V, Beaulieu M, Labrie F, Biossier J. Potent antidopaminergic activity of estradiol at the pituitary level on prolactin release. Science 1978; 200:1173–1175.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Cramer OM, Parker CR, Porter JC. Estrogen inhibition of dopamine release into hypophysial portal blood. Endocrinology 1979; 104:419–422.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Nordstrom O, Melander T, Hokfelt T, Bartfai T, Goldstein M. Evidence for an inhibitory effect of the peptide galanin on dopamine release from the rat median eminence. Neurosci Lett 1987; 73:21–26.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Hyde JF, Howard G. Regulation of galanin gene expression in the rat anterior pituitary gland by the somatostatin analog SMS 201–995. Endocrinology 1992; 131:2097–2102.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Sakai DD, Helms S, Carlstedt-Duke J, Gustafsson J-A, Rottman FM, Yamamoto KR. Hormone-mediated repression: A negative glucocorticoid response element from the bovine prolactin gene. Genes & Dev 1988; 2:1144–1154.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Gellersen B, DiMattia GE, Friesen HG, Bohnet HG. Regulation of prolactin secretion in the human B-lymphoblastoid cell line IM-9-P3 by dexamethasone but not other regulators of pituitary prolactin secretion. Endocrinology 1989; 125:2853–2861.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Maurer RA. Thyroid hormone specifically inhibits prolactin synthesis and decreases prolactin messenger ribonucleic acid levels in cultured pituitary cells. Endocrinology 1982; 110:1507–1514.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Vale W, Blackwell R, Grant G, Guillemin R. Effects of TRF and thyroid hormones on prolactin secretion by rat anterior pituitary cells in vitro. Endocrinology 1973; 93:26–33.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Ozawa H, Kurosumi K. Morphofunctional study on prolactin-producing cells of the anterior pituitaries in adult male rats following thyroidectomy, thyroxine treatment and/or thyrotropin-releasing hormone treatment. Cell Tissue Res 1993; 272:41–47.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Stanley F. Stimulation of prolactin gene expression by insulin. J Biol Chem 1988; 263:13444–13448.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Thrailkill KM, Golander A, Underwood LE, Richards RG, Handwerger S. Insulin stimulates the synthesis and release of prolactin from human decidual cells. Endocrinology 1989; 124:3010–3014.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Chiu S, Koos RD, Wise PM. Detection of prolactin receptor (PRL-R) in the rat hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Endocrinology 1992; 130:1747–1749.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Perkins NA, Westfall TC, Paul CV, MacLeod R, Rogol AD. Effect of prolactin on dopamine synthesis in medial basal hypothalamus: Evidence for a short loop feedback. Brain Res 1979; 160:431–444.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Gudelsky GA, Porter JC. Release of dopamine from tuberoinfundibular neurons into pituitary stalk blood after prolactin or haloperidol administration. Endocrinology 1980; 106:526–529.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Grattan DR, Averill RLW Intrahypothalamic pituitary grafts elevate prolactin in the cerebrospinal fluid and attenuate prolactin release following ether stress. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1991; 196:42–46.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Grattan DR, Averill RLW. Absence of short-loop autoregulation of prolactin during late pregnancy in the rat. Brain Res Bulletin 1995; 36(4):413–416.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Phelps CJ. Pituitary hormones as neurotrophic signals: anomalous hypophysiotrophic neuron differentiation in hypopituitary Dwarf mice. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1994; 206:6–23.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Nicoll CS. Ontogeny and evolution of prolactin’s functions. Fed. Proc. 1980; 39:2563–2566.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Whitworth NS. Lactation in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1988; 13:171–188.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Ymer SI, Stevenson JL, Herington AC. Differences in the developmental patterns of somatotrophic and lactogenic receptors in rabbit liver cytosol. Endocrinology 1989; 125:516–523.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Kelly PA, Djiane J, Katoh M, Ferland LH, Houdebine LM, Teyssot B, Dusanter-Fourt I. The interaction of prolactin with its receptors in target tissues and its mechanisms of action. Rec Prog Horm Res 1984; 40:379–439.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Boutin JM, Edery M, Shirota M, Jolicoeur C, Lesueur L, Ali S, Gould D, Djiane J, Kelly PA. Identification of a cDNA encoding a long form of prolactin receptor in human hepatoma and breast cancer cells. Mol Endocrinol 1989; 3:1455–1461.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Arden KC, Boutin J-M, Djiane J, Kelly PA, Cavenee WK. The receptors for prolactin and growth hormone are localized in the same region of human chromosome 5. Cytogenet Cell Genet 1990; 53:161–165.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Bazan JF. Structure, design and molecular evolution of a cytokine receptor superfamily. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87:6934–6938.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Shirota M, Banville D, Ali S, Jolicoeur C, Boutin JM, Edery M, Djiane J, Kelly PA. Expression of two forms of prolactin receptor in rat ovary and liver. Mol Endocrinol 1990; 4:1136–1143.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Ali S, Pellegrini I, Kelly PA. A prolactin-dependent immune cell line (Nb2) expresses a mutant form of prolactin receptor. J Biol Chem 1991; 266:20110–20117.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Zhang R, Buczko E, Tsai-Morris CH, Hu ZZ, Dufau ML. Isolation and characterization of two novel rat ovarian lactogen receptor cDNA species. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1990; 168:415–422.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Kelly PA, Djiane J, Edery M. Different forms of the prolactin receptor. Insights into the mechanism of prolactin action. Trends Endocrinol Metab 1992; 3:54–59.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Jolicoeur C, Boutin JM, Okamura H. Multiple regulators of prolactin receptor gene expression in rat liver. Mol Endocrinol 1989; 3:895–900.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Jahn G, Edery M, Belair L, Kelly PA, Djiane J. Prolactin receptor gene expression in rat mammary gland and liver during pregnancy and lactation. Endocrinology 1991; 128:2976–2984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Djiane J, Dusanter-Fourt I, Katoh M, Kelly PA. Biological activities of binding site monoclonal antibodies to prolactin receptors of rabbit mammary gland. J Biol Chem 1985; 21:11430–11435.

    Google Scholar 

  166. Rui H, Lebrun J-J, Kirken RA, Kelly PA, Farrar WL. JAK2 activation and cell proliferation induced by antibody-mediated prolactin receptor dimerization. Endocrinology 1994; 135:1299–1306.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Fuh G, Colosi P, Wood WI, Wells JA. Mechanism-based design of prolactin receptor antagonists. J Biol Chem 1993; 268:5376–5381.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Fuh G, Cunningham BC, Fukunaga R, Nagata S, Goeddel DV, Wells JA. Rational design of potent antagonists to the human growth hormone receptor. Science 1992; 256:1677–1680.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Kornberg LJ, Liberti JP. Nb2 cell mitogenesis: Effect of lactogens on cAMP and protein phosphorylation. Biochim Biophys Acta 1989; 1011:205–211.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. David M, Petricoin EF 3rd, Igarashi K-I, Feldman GM. Prolactin activates the interferon-regulated p91 transcription factor and the Jak2 kinase by tyrosine phosphorylation. Biochemistry 1994; 91:7174–7178.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Clevenger CV, Torigoe T, Reed JC. Prolactin induces rapid phosphorylation and activation of prolactin receptor-associated RAF-1 kinase in a T-cell line. J Biol Chem 1994; 269:5559–5565.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Horseman ND. Editorial: famine to feast—growth hormone and prolactin signal transducers. Endocrinology 1994; 135:1289–1290.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Dunaif AE, Zimmerman EA, Friesen HG, Frantz AG. Intracellular localization of prolactin receptor and prolactin in the rat ovary by immunocytochemistry. Endocrinology 1982; 110:1465–1472.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Cohen H, Guillaumot P, Sabbagh I. Characterization of a prolactin binding protein in rat serum. Endocrinology 1993; 132:2601–2606.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Postei-Vinay M-C, Belair L, Kayser C, Kelly PA, Dijane J. Identification of prolactin and growth hormone binding proteins in rabbit milk. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88:6687–6690.

    Google Scholar 

  176. Ultsch M, de Vos AM. Crystals of human growth hormone-receptor complexes: Extracellular domains of the growth hormone and prolactin receptors and a hormone mutant designed to prevent receptor dimerization. J Mol Biol 1993; 231:1133–1136.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Rosen JM, Matusik RJ, Richards DA, Gupta P, Rodgers JR. Multihormonal regulation of casein gene expression at the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels in the mammary gland. Rec Prog Horm Res 1980;36:157–193.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Weite T, Garimorth K, Philipp S, Doppler W. Prolactin-dependent activation of a tyrosine phosphorylated DNA binding factor in mouse mammary epithelial cells. Mol Endocrinol 1994; 8:1091–1102.

    Google Scholar 

  179. Fawcett HAC, Baldwin SA, Flint DJ. Hormonal regulation of the glucose transporter GLUTI in the lactating rat mammary gland. Biochem Soc Trans 1991; 20:17S.

    Google Scholar 

  180. Barber MC, Clegg RA, Finley E, Vernon RG, Flint DJ. The role of growth hormone,prolactin and insulinlike growth factors in the regulation of rat mammary gland and adipose tissue metabolism during lactation. J Endocrinol 1992; 135:195–202.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Da Costa THM, Williamson DH. Regulation of rat mammary-gland uptake of orally administered [l–14C]triolein by insulin and prolactin: evidence for bihormonal control of lipoprotein lipase activity. Biochem J 1994; 300:257–262.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Flint DJ, Gardner M. Evidence that growth hormone stimulates milk synthesis by direct action on the mammary gland and that prolactin exerts effects on milk secretion by maintenance of mammary deoxyribonucleic acid content and tight junction status. Endocrinology 1994; 135:1119–1124.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Thiede MA. The mRNA encoding a parathyroid hormone-like peptide is produced in mammary tissue in response to elevations in serum prolactin. Mol Endocrinol 1989; 3:1443–1447.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Khosla S, Johansen KL, Ory SJ, OBrien PC, Kao PC. Parathyroid hormone-related peptide in lactation and in umbilical cord blood. Mayo Clin Proc 1990; 65:1408–1414.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Weisz-Carrington P, Roux MF, McWilliams M, Phillips-Quagliata JM, Lamm ME. Hormonal induction of the secretory immune system in the mammary gland. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1978; 75:2928–2932.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Ginsburg E, Vonderhaar BK. Prolactin synthesis and secretion by human breast cancer cells. Cancer Res 1995; 55:2591–2595.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Baldocchi RA, Tan L, Horn YK, Nicoll CS. Comparison of the ability of normal mouse mammary tissues and mammary adencarcinoma to cleave rat prolactin. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1995; 208:283–287.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Ellis LA, Picciano MF. Bioactive and immunoreactive prolactin variants in human milk. Endocrinology 1995; 136:2711–2720.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Clapp C, Sears PS, Russell DH, Richards J, Levay-Young BK, Nicoll CS. Biological and immunological characterization of cleaved and 16 K forms of rat prolactin. Endocrinology 1988; 122:2892–2898.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Kleinberg DL, Ruan W, Catanese V, Newman CB, Feldman M 1990 Non-lactogenic effects of growth hormone on growth and insulin-like growth factor-I messenger ribonucleic acid of rat mammary gland. Endocrinology 1990; 126:327–3276.

    Google Scholar 

  191. Fielder PJ, Thordarson G, English A, Rosenfeld RG, Talamantes F. Expression of a lactogen dependent insulin-like growth factor-binding protein in cultured mouse mammary epithelial cells. Endocrinology 1992; 131:261–267.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Richards JS, Williams JI. Luteal cell receptor content for prolactin (PRL) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Regulation by LH and PRL. Endocrinology 1976; 99:1571–1581.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Albarracin CT, Gibori G. Prolactin action on luteal protein expression in the corpus luteum. Endocrinology 1991; 129:1821–1830.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Murai I, Reichlin S, Ben-Jonathan N. The peak phase of the proestrus prolactin surge is blocked by either posterior pituitary lobectomy or antisera to vasoactive intestinal peptide. Endocrinology 1989; 124:1050–1055.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Klibanski A, Beitins IZ, Merriam GR, McArthur JW, Zervas NT, Ridgway EC. Gonadotropin and prolactin pulsations in hyperprolactinemic women before and during bromocriptine therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1984; 58:1141–1147.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Cohen-Becker IR, Selmanoff M, Wise PM. Hyperprolactinemia alters the frequency and amplitude of pulsatile luteinizing hormone secretion in the ovariectomized rat. Neuroendocrinol 1986; 42:328–333.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. McNatty KP, Sawers RS, McNeilly AS. A possible role for prolactin in control of steroid secretion by the human Graafian follicle. Nature 1974; 250:653–655.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. McNeilly AS, Glasier A, Jonassen J, Howie PW. Evidence for direct inhibition of ovarian function by prolactin. J Reprod Fertil 1982; 65:559–569.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Demura R, Ono M, Demura H, Shizume DK, Oouchi H. Prolactin directly inhibits basal as well as gonadotropin-stimulated secretion of progesterone and 17beta-estradiol in the human ovary. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1982; 54:1246–1250.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Subramanian MC, Sacco AG, Moghissi KS. Prolactin size heterogeneity in human follicular fluid. Int J Fertil 1991; 36:367–371.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Falk RJ. Isolated prolactin deficiency: a case report. Fertil Steril 1992; 58:1060–1062.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Schulz KD, Geiger W, Del Pozo E, Kunzig HJ. Pattern of sexual steroids, prolactin, and gonadotropic hormones during prolactin inhibition in normally cycling women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1978; 132:561–566.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Muhlenstedt D, Bohnet HG, Hanker JP, Schneider HPG. Short luteal phase and prolactin. Int J Fertil 1978; 23:214–218.

    Google Scholar 

  204. Kauppila A, Reinila M, Martikainen H, Roonberg L, Puistola U. Hypoprolactinemia and ovarian function. Fertil Steril 1988; 49:437–441.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Alila HW, Rogo KO, Gombe S. Effects of prolactin on steroidogenesis by human cells in culture. Fertil Steril 1987; 47:947–955.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Del Pozo E, Wyss H, Tolis G, Alcaniz J, Campana A, Naftolin F. Prolactin and deficient luteal function. Obstet Gynecol 1979; 53:282–286.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Laufer N, Botero-Ruiz W, DeCherney AH, Haseltine F, Polan ML, Behrman HR. Gonadotropin and prolactin levels in follicular fluid of human ova successfully fertilized in vitro. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1984; 58:430–434.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Seibel MM, Smith D, Dlugi AM, Levesque L. Periovulatory follicular fluid levels in spontaneous human cycles. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 68:1073–1077.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Oda T, Yoshimura Y, Takehara Y, Kohriyama S, Sano Y, Tanabe K, Kobayashi T, Nakamura Y, Ohno T, Nozawa S. Effects of prolactin on fertilization and cleavage of human oocytes. Horm Res 1991; 35:33–38.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Hofmann GE, Denis ALC, Scott RT, Muasher SJ. The incidence of transient hyperprolactinemia in gonadotropin-stimulated cycles for in vitro fertilization and its effect on pregnancy outcome. Fertil Steril 1989; 52:622–626.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Pattinson HA, Taylor PJ, Fleetham JA, Servis SA. Transient hyperprolactinemia has no effect on endocrine response and outcome in in vitro fertilization (IVF). J Vitro Fert Embryo Transfer 1990; 7:89–93.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Hummel WP, Clark MR, Talbert LM. Transient hyperprolactinemia during cycle stimulation and its inflence on oocyte retrieval and fertilization rates. Fertil Steril 1990; 53:677–681.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Reinthaller A, Bieglmayer C, Deutinger J, Csaicsich P. Transient hyperprolactinemia during cycle stimulation: influence on the endocrine repsonse and fertilization rate of human oocytes and effects of bromocriptine treatment. Fertil Steril 1988; 49:432–436.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Sopelak VM, Whitworth NS, Norman PF, Cowan BD. Bromocriptine inhibition of anesthesia-induced hyperprolactinemia: effect on serum and follicular fluid hormones, oocyte fertilization, and embryo cleavage rates during in vitro fertilization. Fertil Steril 1989; 52:627–632.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Negami AI, Tominaga T. Effects of prolactin on cultured human endometrial cells. Horm Res 1991; 35:50–57.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Galosy SS, Gertler A, Elberg G, Laird DM. Distinct placental lactogen and prolactin (lactogen) receptors in bovine endometrium. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1991; 78:229–236.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Bartke A. Effects of prolactin on spermatogenesis in hypophysectomized mice. Endocrinology 1971; 49:311–316.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. Hafiez AA, Bartke A, Lloyd CW. The role of prolactin in the regulation of testis function: the synergistic effects of prolactin and luteinizing hormone on the incorporation of [1–14C] acetate into testosterone and cholesterol by testes from hypophysectomized rats in vitro. Endocrinology 1972; 53:223–230.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Aragona C, Bohnet HG, Friesen HG. Localization of prolactin binding in prostate and testis: the role of serum prolactin concentration on the testicular LH receptor. Acta Endocrinology 1977; 84:402–409.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Oseko F, Endo J, Nakano A, Taniguchi A, Morikawa K, Usui T. Effects of chronic bromocriptine-induced hyperprolactinemia on plasma testosterone responses to human chorionic gonadotropin stimulation in mormal men. Fertil Steril 1991; 55:355–357.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Carter JN, Tyson JE, Tolis G, Van Vliet S, Faiman C, Friesen HG. Prolactin-secreting tumors and hypogonadism in 22 men. N Engl J Med 1978; 299:847–852.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Drago F. Prolactin and sexual behavior. Neuroscience Biobehavioral Review 1984; 8:433–439.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Costello LC, Franklin RB. Effect of prolactin on the prostrate. Prostate 1994; 24:162–166.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Negro-Vilar A, Saad WA, McCann SM. Evidence for a role of prolactin in prostate and seminal vesicle growth in immature animals. Endocrinology 1977; 100:729–737.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Perez-Villamil B, Bordiu E, Puente-Cueva M. Involvement of physiological prolactin levels in growth and prolactin receptor content of prostate glands and testes in developing male rats. J Endocrinol 1992; 132:449–459.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Sheth AR, Mugatwala PP, Shah GV, Rao SS. Occurrence of prolactin in human semen. Fertil Steril 1975; 26:905–907.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. Rui H, Torjesen PA, Jacobsen H, Purvis K. Testicular and glandular contributions to the prolactin pool in human semen. Arch Androl 1985; 15:129–136.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Shah GV, Desai RB, Sheth AR. Effect of prolactin on metabolism of human spermatozoa. Fertil Steril 1976;27:1292–1294.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Gala RR. Prolactin and growth hormone in the regulation of the immune system. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1991; 198:513–527.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Hooghe R, Delhase M, Vergani P, Malur A, Hooghe-Peters EL. Growth hormone and prolactin are paracrine growth and differentiation factors in the haemopoietic system. Immunol Today 1993; 14:212–214.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Dardenne M, Savino W. Prolactin-mediated cellular interactions in the thymus. Ann NY Acad Sci 1994; 741:100–107.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Kelley KW, Brief S, Westly HJ, Novakofski J, Bechtel PJ, Simon J, Walker EB. GH3 pituitary adenoma cells can reverse thymic aging in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986; 83:5663–5667.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Nagy E, Berczi I. Immunodeficiency in hypophysectomized rats. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1978; 89:530–537.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Nagy E, Berczi I, Friesen HG. Regulation of immunity in rats by lactogenic and growth hormones. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1983; 102:351–357.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Berczi I, Nagy E, de Toledo AM, Matusik RJ, Friesen HG. Pituitary hormones regulate c-myc and DNA synthesis in lymphoid tissue. J Immunology 1991; 146:2201–2206.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Bernton EW, Meltzer MS, Holaday JW. Supression of macrophage activation and T-lymphocyte function in hypoprolactinemic mice. Science 1988; 239:401–404.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Compton CC, Rizk I, Regauer S, Burd E, Holaday J, Kenner J. The effect of bromocriptine-induced hy-poprolactinemia on xenogenic and allogenic skin graft survival in a mouse model. J Burn Care Rehabil 1994; 15:393–400.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Whyte A, Williams RO. Bromocriptine suppresses postpartum exacerbation of collagen-induced arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1988; 31:927–928.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Palestine AG, Muellenberg-Coulombre CG, Kim MK, Gelato MC, Nussenblatt RB. Bromocriptine and low dose cyclosporine in the treatment of experimental autoimmune uveitis in the rat. J Clin Invest 1987; 79:1078–1081.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. McMurray R, Keisler D, Kanuckel K, Izui S, Walker SE. Prolactin influences autoimmune disease activity in the female B/W mouse. J Immunology 1991; 147:3780–3787.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. Hiestand PC, Mekler P, Nordmann R, Grieder A, Permmongkol C. Prolactin as a modulator of lymphocyte responsiveness provides a possible menchanism of action for cyclosporine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1985; 83:2599–2603.

    Google Scholar 

  242. Russell DH, Kibler R, Matrisian L, Larson DF, Poulos BM BE. Prolactin receptors on human T and B lymphocytes: antagonism of prolactin binding by cyclosporin. J Immunology 1985; 134:3027–3031.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Lahat N, Miller A, Shtiller R, Touby E. Differential effects of prolactin upon activation and differentiation of human B lymphocytes. J Neuro Immunol 1993; 47:35–40.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Carrier M, Russell DH, Wild JC, Emery RW, Copeland JG. Prolactin as a marker of rejection in human heart transplantation. J Heart Transplant 1987; 6:290–292.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Reber PM. Prolactin and Immunomodulation. Am J Med 1992; 95:637–644.

    Google Scholar 

  246. Buskila D, Sukenik S, Shoenfeld Y. The possible role of prolactin in autoimmunity. Am J Reprod Immunol 1991;26:118–123.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. Jara LJ, Lavalle C, Fraga A, Gomez-Sanchez C, Silveira LH, Martinez-Osuna P, Germain BF, Espinoza LR. Prolactin, immunoregulation, and autoimmune diseases. Semin Arthritis Rheumatism 1991; 20:273–284.

    Google Scholar 

  248. Harris RD, Kay NE, Seljeskog EL, Murray KJ, Douglas SD. Prolactin suppression of leukocyte Chemotaxis in vitro. J Neurosurg 1979; 50:462–465.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  249. Vidaller A, Llorente L, Larrea F, Mendez JP, Alcocer-Varela J, Alarcon-Segovia D. T cell dysregulation in patients with hyperprolactinemia: effect of bromocriptine treatment. Clin Immunol Immunopath 1986; 38:337–343.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  250. Vidaller A, Guadarrama F, Llorente L, Mendez JP, Larrea F, Villa AR, Alarcon-Segovia D. Hyperprolactinemia inhibits natural killer (NK) cell function in vitro and its bromocriptine treatment not only corrects it but makes it more efficient. J Clin Immunol 1992; 12:210–215.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  251. Pellegrini I, Lebrun J-J, Ali S, Kelly PA. Expression of prolactin and its receptor in human lymphoid cells. Mol Endocrinol 1992; 6:1023–1031.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. Koh CY, Phillips JT. Prolactin receptor expression by lymphoid tissues in normal and immunized rats. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1993; 92:R21-R25.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  253. Montgomery DW, LeFevre JA, Ulrich FD, Adamson CR, Zukoski CF. Identification of prolactin-like proteins synthesized by normal murine lymphocytes. Endocrinology 1990; 127:2601–2603.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Hartmann DP, Holaday JW, Bernton EW. Inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation by antibodies to prolactin. FASEB J 1989; 3:2194–2202.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  255. Clevenger CV, Russell DH, Appasamv PM, Prystowsky MB. Regulation of interleukin 2-derived T-lymphocyte proliferation by prolactin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87:6160–6464.

    Google Scholar 

  256. Touraine P, Kelly PA. Expression of the short and long forms of the prolactin receptor in murine lymphoid tissues. Rec Prog Horm Res 1995; 50:423–428.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  257. Rao Y-P, Buckley DJ, Olson MD, Buckley AR. Nuclear translocation of prolactin: collaboration of tyrosine kinase and protein kinase C activation in rat Nb2 node lymphoma cells. J Cell Physiol 1995; 163:266–276.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  258. Meyer N, Prentice DA, Fox MT, Hughes JP. Prolactin-induced proliferation of the Nb2 T-lymphoma is associated with protein kinase-C-independent phosphorylation of stathmin. Endocrinology 1992; 131:1977–1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  259. Wilson TM, Yu-Lee L, Kelley MR. Coordinate gene expression of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) and the LHRH-receptor after prolactin stimulation in the rat Nb2 T-cell line: implications for a role in immunomodulation and cell cycle gene expression. Mol Endocrinol 1995; 9:44–53.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  260. Bellone G, Geuna M, Carbone A, Silvestri S, Foa R, Emanuelli G, Matera L. Regulatory action of prolactin in the in vitro growth of CD34+ve human hemopoietic progenitor cells. J Cell Physiol 1995; 163:221–231.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. Widness JA, Clemons GK, Garcia JF, Schwartz R. Plasma immunoreactive erythropoietin in normal women studied sequentially during and after pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984; 149:646–650.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  262. Loretz CA, Bern HA. Prolactin and osmoregulation in vertebrates. Neuroendocrinol 1982; 35:292–304.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  263. Horrobin DF, Burstyn PG, Lloyd IJ, Durkin N, Lipton A, Muiruri KL. Actions of prolactin on human renal function. Lancet 1971; 2:352–354.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  264. Buckman MT, Peake GT, Robertson G. Hyperprolactinemia influences renal function in man. Metabolism 1976; 25:509–516.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  265. Berl T, Brautbar N, Ben-David M, Czaczkes W, Kleeman C. Osmotic control of prolactin release and its effect on renal water excretion in man. Kidney Int 1976; 10:158–163.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  266. Baumann G, Marynick SP, Winters SJ, Loriaux L. The effect of osmotic stimuli on prolactin secretion and renal water excretion in normal man and in chronic hyperprolactinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1977; 44:199–202.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  267. Mountjoy K, Cowden FA, Dobbie JW, Ratcliffe JG. Prolactin receptors in kidney. J Endocrinol 1980; 87:47–54.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Soupart A, Buisson L, Prospert F, Decaux G. Indirect evidence to suggest that prolactin induces salt retention in cirrhosis. J Hepatology 1994; 21:347–352.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  269. Robertson MY, Bovajian MJ, Patterson K, Robertson WVB. Modualtion of the chloride concentration of human sweat by prolactin. Endocrinology 1986; 119:2439–2444.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Tyson JE. The evolutionary role of prolactin in mammalian osmoregulation: Effects on fetoplacental hydromineral transport. Semin Perinatol 1982; 6:216–228.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. Pahuja DN, DeLuca HF. Stimulation of intestinal calcium transport and bone calcium mobilization by prolactin in vitamin D-deficient rats. Science 1981; 214:1038–1039.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Kumar R, Abboud CF, Riggs BL. The effect of elevated prolactin levels on plasma 1,25-dihydroxivitamin D and intestinal absorption of calcium. Mayo Clin Proc 1980; 55:51–53.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. Nagano M, Chaster E, Choquet A, Bara J, Gespach C, Kelly PA. Expression of prolactin and growth hormone receptor genes and their isoforms in the gastrointestinal tract. Am Journal of Physiology 1995; 268:431–432.

    Google Scholar 

  274. Sobrinho LG. The psychogenic effects of prolactin. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1993; 129 (suppl) 1:38–40.

    Google Scholar 

  275. Bridges RS, Mann PE. Prolactin-brain interactions in the induction of maternal behavior in rats. Psycho-neuroendocrinology 1994; 19:611–622.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  276. McCarthy MM, Curran GH, Siegel HI. Evidence for the involvement of prolactin in the maternal behavior of the hamster. Physiol Behav 1994; 55:181–184.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  277. Theorell T. Prolactin—a hormone that mirrors passiveness in crisis situations. Integr Physiol Behav Sei 1992; 27:32–38.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  278. Lozoff B, Felt BT, Nelson EC, Wolf AW, Meltzer HW, Jimenez E. Serum prolactic levels and behavior in infants. Biol Psychiatry 1995; 37:4–12.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Virginia D. Sarapura MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO, USA

    Margaret E. Wierman MD

  2. Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Denver, CO, USA

    Margaret E. Wierman MD

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1997 Humana Press Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sarapura, V.D. (1997). Prolactin. In: Wierman, M.E. (eds) Diseases of the Pituitary. Contemporary Endocrinology, vol 3. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3954-3_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3954-3_3

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-8438-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-3954-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation