Skip to main content

Exceptional Memory: The Influence of Practice and Knowledge on the Development of Elaborative Encoding Strategies

  • Chapter

Abstract

In the 17th century, English scientist and philosopher Francis Bacon observed that “knowledge is power.” Recent progress in the field of cognitive science has given Bacon’s adage a firm empirical foundation. Research in both cognitive psychology and computer science (Feigenbaum, 1989) show that the more relevant knowledge humans or AI programs bring to bear on a particular task, the better they perform.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD   54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Akin, O. (1982). The psychology of architectural design. London: Pion.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J.R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J.R. (1985). Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York: Freeman & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J.J. & Reder, L.M. (1979). An elaborative processing explanation of depth of processing. In L.S. Cermak & F.I.M. Craik (Ed.), Levels of processing in human memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bobrow, D.G., & Bower, G.H. (1969). Comprehension and recall of sentences. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 80, 455–461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charness, N. (1979). Components of skill in bridge. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 33, 1–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chase, W.G. (1986). Visual information processing. In K.R. Boff, L. Kaufman, & J.P. Thomas (Eds.), Handbook of perception and human performance, Vol 2: Cognitive processes and performance. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chase, W.G., & Ericsson, K.A. (1981). Skilled memory. In J.R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chase, W.G., & Ericsson, K.A. (1982). Skill and working memory. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation, Vol. 16. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chase. W.G., & Simon, H.A. (1973a). Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 55–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chase, W.G., & Simon, H.A. (1973b). The mind’s eye in chess. In W.G. Chase (Ed.), Visual information processing. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chi, M.T.H., Feltovich, P.J., & Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and the representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science, 5, 121–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiesi, H.L., Spilich, G.J., & Voss, J.F. (1979). Acquisition of domain-related information in relation to high and low domain knowledge. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 257–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craik, F.I.M., & Lockhart, R.S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671–684.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowder, R.G. (1976). Principles of learning and memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Groot, A.D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague: Mouton.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Groot, A.D. (1966). Perception and memory versus thought: Same old ideas and recent findings. In Problem solving: Research, method, and theory. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ebbinghaus, H. (1964). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. New York: Dover Publications. Original publication 1885.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egan, D.E., & Schwartz, B.J. (1979). Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings. Memory and Cognition, 7, 149–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engle, R.W., & Bukstel, L. (1978). Memory processes among bridge players of differing expertise. American Journal of Psychology, 91, 673–690.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ericsson, K.A. (1985). Memory skill. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 39, 188–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ericsson, K.A., & Chase, W.G. (1982). Exceptional memory. American Scientist, 70, 607–615.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ericsson, K.A., Chase, W.G., & Faloon, S. (1980). Acquisition of a memory skill. Science, 208, 1181–1182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ericsson, K.A., & Poison, P.G. (1988). An experimental analysis of the mechanisms of a memory skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14, 305–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ericsson, K.A., & Simon, H.A. (1980). Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review, 87, 215–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ericsson, K.A., & Staszewski, J.J. (1989). Skilled memory and expertise: Mechanisms of exceptional performance. In D. Klahr & K. Kotovsky (Eds.), Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert A. Simon. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feigenbaum, E.A. (1977). The art of artificial intelligence: Themes and studies of knowledge engineering. Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, pp. 1014–1029.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feigenbaum, E.A. (1989). What hath Simon wrought? In D. Klahr & K. Kotovsky (Eds.), Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert A. Simon. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feigenbaum, E.A., & Simon, H.A. (1962). A theory of the senal position effect. British Journal of Psychology, 53, 307–320.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feigenbaum, E.A., & Simon, H.A. (1984). EPAM-like models of recognition and learning. Cognitive Science, 8, 305–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, R., and Chi, M.T.H. (1988). Overview. In M.T.H. Chi, R. Glaser, & M.J. Farr (Ed.), The nature of expertise. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, J.R., & Flower, L.S. (1986). Writing research and the writer. American Psychologist, 41, 1078–1089.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, E., & Love, T. (1972). How good can memory be? In A.W. Melton, & E. Martin (Eds.), Coding processes in human memory. Washington, DC: Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, T.S., & Jenkins, J.J. (1969). Recall for words as a function of semantic, graphic, and syntactic orienting tasks. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12, 471–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeffries, R., Turner, A.A., Poison, P.G., & Atwood, M.E. (1981). The processes involved in designing software. In J.R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larkin, J., McDermott, J., Simon, D.P., & Simon, H.A. (1980). Expert and novice performance in solving physics problems. Science, 208, 1335–1342.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lesgold, A.M. (1984). Acquiring expertise. In J.R. Anderson & S.M. Kosslyn (Eds.), Tutorials in learning and memory. San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A.R. (1968). The mind of a mnemonist. New York: Avon.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKeithen, K.B., Reitman, J.S., Rueter, H.H., & Hirtle, S.C. (1981). Knowledge organization and skill differences in computer programmers. Cognitive Psychology, 13, 307–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two. Psychological Review, 63, 81–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newell, A. (1973). You can’t play 20 questions with nature and win: Projective comments on the papers of this symposium. In W.G. Chase (Ed.), Visual information processing. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newell, A. (1989). Unified theories of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. In press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nisbett, R.E., & Wilson, T.D. (1977). Telling more than we know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norman, D.A., & Bobrow, D.G. (1979). An intermediate stage in memory retrieval. Cognitive Psychology, 11, 107–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, J.R., & Reuter, H.H. (1987). Extracting expertise from experts: Methods for knowledge acquisition (Tech. Rep. 13). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Cognitive Science and Machine Intelligence Laboratory.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posner, M.I. (1988). Introduction: What is it to be an expert? In M.T.H. Chi, R. Glaser, & M.J. Farr (Ed.), The nature of expertise. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reitman, J. (1976). Skilled perception in Go: Deducing memory structures from inter-response times. Cognitive Psychology, 8, 336–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richman, H.B., & Simon, H.A. (1989). Context effects in letter perception: Comparison of two theories. Psychological Review, 96, 417–432.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salis, D. (1977). The identification and assessment of cognitive variables associated with reading of advanced music at the piano. Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shneiderman, B. (1976). Exploratory experiments in programmer behavior. International Journal of Computer and Information Sciences, 5, 123–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, H.A. (1976). Neural mechanisms of learning and memory. In M.R. Rosenzweig and E.L. Bennett (Eds.), The information-storage system called ‘human memory’. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, H.A., & Chase, W.G. (1973). Skill in chess. American Scientist, 61, 394–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slaboda, J. (1976). Visual perception of musical notation: Registering pitch symbols in memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 28, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staszewski, J.J. (1988a). The psychological reality of retrieval structures: An investigation of expert knowledge. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48, 2126B.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staszewski, J.J. (1988b). Skilled memory and expert mental calculation. In M.T.H. Chi, R. Glaser, & M.J. Farr (Ed.), The nature of expertise. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stein, B.S., & Bransford, J.D. (1979). Constraints on effective elaborations: Effect of precision and subject generation. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 769–778.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sternberg, S. (1967). Retrieval of contextual information from memory. Psychonomic Science, 8, 55–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tulving, E., & Thomson, D.M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1990 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Staszewski, J.J. (1990). Exceptional Memory: The Influence of Practice and Knowledge on the Development of Elaborative Encoding Strategies. In: Schneider, W., Weinert, F.E. (eds) Interactions Among Aptitudes, Strategies, and Knowledge in Cognitive Performance. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3268-1_18

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3268-1_18

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-7942-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-3268-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics