Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Need for Large-Scale Experiments to Assess and Predict the Response of Ecosystems to Perturbation

  • Chapter
Successes, Limitations, and Frontiers in Ecosystem Science

Summary

Ecosystem experiments are field experiments in which the experimental unit is large enough to include the relevant physical, chemical, and biotic context of the processes being studied. Whole-ecosystem experiments have yielded insights about many processes in a diversity of habitats. Successful design and interpretation of ecosystem experiments depend on connections to theoretical, long-term, and comparative studies. Ecologists have overcome many problems of inference for ecosystem experiments. However, the issue of replication is far less important than the need to compare alternative explanations for the results, which may involve reference ecosystems, premanipulation data, and additional measurements or experiments designed to compare possible explanations. Potential limitations of ecosystem experimentation include the variability and slow dynamics of ecosystems, certain aspects of academic and management culture, and institutional shortcomings. Progress in ecosystem experiments can be accelerated through dedicated sites and funding, and keystones that foster collaborations between management and science for adaptive ecosystem management.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Abrahamson, G., A.O. Stuanes, and B. Tvelte, eds. 1994.Long-term experiments with acid rain in Norwegian forest ecosystems.Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, T.F.H., and T.W. Hoekstra. 1992.Toward a unified ecology.Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bower, P.M., C.A. Kelly, E.J. Fee, J.A. Shearer, D.R. DeClerq, and D.W. Schindler. 1987. Simultaneous measurement of primary production by whole-lake and bottle radiocarbon additions.Limnology and Oceanography32:299–312.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, S.R. 1989. Replication and treatment strength in whole-lake experiments.Ecology70:453–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, S.R. 1993. Statistical analysis of the ecosystem experiments. Pages 26–42 in S.R. Carpenter and J.F. Kitchell, eds.The trophic cascade in lakes.Cambridge University Press, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, S.R. 1996. Microcosm experiments have limited relevance for community and ecosystem ecology.Ecology77:677–680.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, S.R., S.W. Chisholm, C.J. Krebs, D.W. Schindler, and R.F. Wright. 1995. Ecosystem experiments.Science269:324–327.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, S.R., P. Cunningham, S. Gafny, A. Muñoz del Rio, N. Nibbelink, M. Olson et al. 1995. Responses of bluegill to habitat manipulations: power to detect effects.North American Journal of Fisheries Management15:519–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, S.R., T.M. Frost, D. Heisey, and T.K. Kratz. 1989. Randomized intervention analysis and the interpretation of whole-ecosystem experiments.Ecology70:1142–1152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, S.R., T.M. Frost, J.F. Kitchell, T.K. Kratz, D.W. Schindler, J. Shearer et al. 1991. Patterns of primary production and herbivory in 25 North American lake ecosystems. Pages67–96inJ. Cole, G. Lovett, and S. Findlayeds. Comparative analyses of ecosystems.Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, S.R., and J.F. Kitchell, eds. 1993.The trophic cascade in lakes.Cambridge University Press, London, England.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, S.R., M. Olson, P. Cunningham, S. Gafny, N. Nibbelink, T. Pellett et al. 1998 (in press). Macrophyte structure and growth of bluegill(Lepomis macrochirus):design of a multi-lake experiment. Pages 217–226 in E. Jeppesen, K. Christofferson, and M. Sondergaard, eds.The structuring role of macrophytes in lakes.Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Coale, K.H, K.D. Johnson, S.E. Fitzwater, R.M. Gordon, S. Tanner, F.P. Chavez et al. 1996. A massive phytoplankton bloom induced by an ecosystem-scale iron fertilization experiment in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.Nature383:495–501.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, J., G. Lovett, and S. Findlay, eds. 1991.Comparative analyses of ecosystems.Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Costanza, R., ed. 1991.Ecological economics: the science and management of sustainability.Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cottingham, K.L., and S.R. Carpenter. 1998.Scale of aggregation for ecological indicators: phytoplankton responses to whole-lake enrichment. Ecological Applications: in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, A.M. 1996. An introduction to Bayesian inference for ecological research and environmental decision-making.Ecological Applications6:1036–1046.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Francis, G.R., and H.A. Regier. 1995. Barriers and bridges to the restoration of the Great Lakes basin ecosystem. Pages 239–291 in L.H. Gunderson, C.S. Holling, and S.S. Light, eds.Barriers and bridges to the renewal of ecosystems and institutions.Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frost, T.M., D.L. DeAngelis, S.M. Bartell, D.J. Hall, and S.H. Hurlbert. 1988. Scale in the design and interpretation of aquatic community research. Pages 229–260 in S.R. Carpenter, ed.Complex interactions in lake communities.Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gelman, A., J.B. Carlin, H.S. Stern, and D.B. Rubin. 1995.Bayesian data analysis.Chapman & Hall, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, D.J., T.R. Seastedt, and J.M. Briggs. 1993. Management practices in tallgrass prairie: large-and small-scale effects on species composition.Journal of Applied Ecology30:247–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gulati, R.D., E.H.R.R. Lammens, M.L. Meijer, and E. van Donk, eds. 1990.Biomanipulation-tool for water management.Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson, L.H, C.S. Holling, and S.S. Light. 1995.Barriers and bridges to the renewal of ecosystems and institutions.Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurevitch, J., and L.V. Hedges. 1993. Meta-analysis: combining the results of independent experiments. Pages 378–398inS.M. Scheiner and J. Gurevitch, eds.Design and analysis of ecosystem experiments.Chapman & Hall, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, R.J., and G.E. Likens. 1981. Chemical flux in an acid-stressed stream.Nature292:329–331.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, S.S., C. Folke, and K.-G. Maler. 1996.Rights to nature: ecological economic cultural and political principles for the environment.Island Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasler, A.D., O.M. Brynildson, and W.T. Helm. 1951. Improving conditions for fish in brown-water lakes by alkalization.Journal of Wildlife Management15:347352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilborn, R. 1992. Can fisheries agencies learn from experience?Fisheries17:614.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilborn, R., and M. Mangel. 1997.The ecological detective.Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilborn, R., C.J. Walters, and D. Ludwig. 1995. Sustainable exploitation of renew-able resources.Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics26:45–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holling, C.S., ed. 1978.Adaptive environmental assessment and management.John Wiley & Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holling, C.S. 1995. What barriers? What bridges? Pages 3–36inL.H. Gunderson, C.S. Holling, and S.S. Light, eds.Barriers and bridges to the renewal of ecosystems and institutions.Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howson, C., and P. Urbach. 1989.Scientific reasoning: the Bayesian approach.Open Court Press, La Salle, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurlbert, S.H. 1984. Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments.Ecological Monographs54:187–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jefferys, W.H., and J.O. Berger. 1992. Ockham’s razor and Bayesian analysis.American Scientist80:64–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitchell, J.F., ed. 1992.Food web management: a case study of Lake Mendota.Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, C.J., S. Boutin, R. Boonstra, A.R.E. Sinclair, J.N.M. Smith, M.R.T. Dale et al. 1995. Impact of food and predation on the snowshoe hare cycle.Science269:1112–1115.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, K.N. 1993.Compass and gyroscope.Island Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R.G. 1992. Ecologically effective social organization as a requirement for sustaining watershed ecosystems. Pages 73–90 in R. Naiman, ed.Watershed management.Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, S.A. 1992. The problem of pattern and scale in ecology.Ecology73:1943–1967.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Likens, G.E. 1985. An experimental approach for the study of ecosystems.Journal of Ecology73:381–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Likens, G.E., ed. 1989.Long-term studies in ecology.Springer-Verlag, New York. Likens, G.E. 1992.The ecosystem approach-its use and abuse.The Ecology Institute, Oldendorf/Luhe, Germany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Likens, G.E., F.H. Bormann, R.S. Pierce, and W.A. Reiners. 1978. Recovery of a deforested ecosystem.Science199:492–496.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lodge, D.M., S.C. Blumenshine, and Y. Vadeboncoeur. 1998. Insights and application of large-scale, long-term ecological observations and experiments. In W.J. Resetarits and J. Bernardo, eds.The state of experimental ecology: questions levels and approaches.Oxford University Press, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • McAllister, M.K., and R.M. Peterman. 1992. Experimental design in the management of fisheries: a review.North American Journal of Fisheries Management12:1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonnell, M.J., and S.T.A. Picicett. 1993.Humans as components of ecosystems.Springer-Verlag. New York.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • McLain, R.J., and R.G. Lee. 1996. Adaptive management: promises and pitfalls.Environmental Management20:437–448.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mooney, H.A., E. Medina, D.W. Schindler, E.-D. Schulze, and B.H. Walker. 1991.Ecosystem experiments.John Wiley & Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ojima, D.S., D.S. Schimel, W.J. Parton, and C.E. Owensby. 1994. Long-and short-term effects of fire on nitrogen cycling in tallgrass prairie.Biogeochemistry24:67–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orians, G. 1986. Ecology and environmental problem solving.Northwest Science60:287–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paine, R.T. 1969. A note on trophic complexity and community stability.American Naturalist103:91–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paine, R.T., J.L. Ruesink, A. Sun, E.L. Soulanille, M.J. Wonham, C.D.G. Harley et al. 1996. Trouble on oiled waters: lessons from theExxon Valdez oil spill. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics27:197–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickett, S.T.A. 1989. Space-for-time substitution as an alternative to long-term studies. Pages 110–135 in G.E. Likens, ed.Long-term studies in ecology.Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pickett, S.T.A., J. Kolasa, and C.G. Jones. 1994.Ecological understanding.Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pole, A., M. West, and J. Harrison. 1994.Applied Bayesian forecasting and time series analysis.Chapman & Hall, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, P.W., D.M. Heisey, E.V. Nordheim, and T.M. Frost. 1993. Time-series intervention analysis: unreplicated large-scale experiments. Pages 138–158 in S.M. Scheiner and J. Gurevitch, eds.Design and analysis of ecological experiments.Chapman & Hall, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schindler, D.W. 1977. The evolution of phosphorus limitation in lakes.Science195:260–262.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schindler, D.W. 1992. A view of NAPAP from north of the border.Ecological Applications2:124–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schindler, D.W., T.M. Frost, K.H. Mills, P.S.S. Chang, I.J. Davies, D. Findlay et al. 1991. Comparisons between experimentally-and atmospherically-acidified lakes.Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh97B:193–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slobodkin, L.B. 1988. Intellectual problems of applied ecology.BioScience38:337–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart-Oaten, A., W. Murdoch, and K. Parker. 1986. Environmental impact assessment: “pseudoreplication” in time?Ecology67:929–940.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tilman, D. 1989. Ecological experimentation: strengths and conceptual problems. Pages 136–157 in G.E. Likensed.Long-term studies in ecology.Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, J.B., M.R. Whiles, S. Eggert, T.F. Cuffney, G.J. Lucthart, and K. Chung. 1996. Long-term dynamics of coarse particulate organic matter in three Appalachian Mountain streams.Journal of the North American Benthological Society14:217–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walters, C.J. 1986.Adaptive management of renewable resources.MacMillan, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walters, C.J. 1993. Dynamic models and large scale field experiments in environmental impact assessment and management.Australian Journal of Ecology18:5361.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walters, C.J., J.S. Collie, and T. Webb. 1988. Experimental design for estimating transient responses to management disturbances.Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences45:530–538.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westley, F. 1995. Governing design: the management of social systems and ecosystems management. Pages 391–429 in L.H. Gunderson, C.S. Holling, and S.S. Light, eds.Barriers and bridges to the renewal of ecosystems and institutions.Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, R.F., E. Lotse, and A. Semb. 1988. Reversibility of acidification shown by whole-lake catchment experiments.Nature334:670–675.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Stephen R. Carpenter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY, 12545, USA

    Michael L. Pace  & Peter M. Groffman  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Carpenter, S.R. (1998). The Need for Large-Scale Experiments to Assess and Predict the Response of Ecosystems to Perturbation. In: Pace, M.L., Groffman, P.M. (eds) Successes, Limitations, and Frontiers in Ecosystem Science. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-1724-4_12

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-1724-4_12

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-387-98475-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-1724-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation