Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Unintended Consequences of Renewable Energy pp 81–89Cite as

Solar Cell Production

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Green Energy and Technology ((GREEN))

Abstract

Producing electricity by harvesting solar energy in photovoltaic (PV) solar cells can, as we will see, lead to serious unintended consequences. It is the manufacturing of the PV that causes the most evident impacts on health and the environment. The large consumption of water for rinsing wafers between etching steps, creates a subsequent need for wastewater treatment facilities. Production of the cells also leads to additional emissions of fluorinated compounds, such as hexafluoroethane (C2F6), nitrogen trifluoride (NF3), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). These are all extremely strong greenhouse gases, with global warming potentials (GWPs) of 9,200, 17,200, and 39,800 times that of CO2. These emissions from PV manufacturing are worth serious consideration, as they are counter to the prevailing idea that solar PV cells are a very “green” energy technology. In fact, massive production of new PV solar panels will imply huge global emissions of greenhouse gases. Alternative, lower GHG emitting production processes are being developed, but they rely on the use of very toxic and explosive gases, such as fluorine (F2).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    The ingot is a casted chunk of crystalline silicon that is made from a molten smelt. It is cut into thin slices that ends up as wafers after several steps of processing.

  2. 2.

    The name Buckminster fullerene is homage to the American designer, author, and inventor Richard Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller, as C60 resembles the geodesic domes that were his trademark.

References

  1. Agostinelli G, Choulat P, Dekkers HFW, De Wolf S, Beaucarne G (2005) Advanced dry processes for crystalline silicon solar cells. paper presented at the photovoltaic specialists conference, 2005. Conference record of the thirty-first IEEE. IEEE, pp 1149–1152. http://b-dig.iie.org.mx/BibDig/P05-0850/pdffiles/ papers/283_625.pdf. Accessed 17 Sep 2013

  2. Agostinelli G, Dekkers HFW, De Wolf S and Beaucarne G (2004) Dry Etching and Texturing Processes for Crystalline Silicon Solar cells: Sustainability for Mass Production. paper presented at the 19th European photovaltaic solar energy conference. Paris, 423–426. http://www.docin.com/p-51912614.html. Accessed 17 Sep 2013

  3. Alsema EA (2000) Energy pay-back time and CO2 emissions of PV systems. Prog Photovoltaics Res Appl 8(1):17–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Alsema EA and de Wild-Scholten M (2005) Environmental impact of crystalline silicon photovoltaic module production. Paper presented at the materials research society symposium, G: life cycle analysis tools for” green” materials and process selection. Boston

    Google Scholar 

  5. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) (2000) Documentation of the threshold limit values and biological indices. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati

    Google Scholar 

  6. Connett P (2012) 50 Reasons to oppose fluoridation. fluoridealert.org - Fluoride Action Network September. http://www.fluoridealert.org/articles/50-reasons/ Accessed 28 June 2013

  7. Coplan M, Patch S, Masters R, Bachmann M (2007) Confirmation of and explanation for elevated blood lead and other disorders in children exposed to water disinfection and fluoridation chemicals. Neurotoxicology 28(5):1032–1042

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Dresler B, Köhler D, Mäder G, Kaskel S, Beyer E, Clochard L, Duffy E, Hoffman M , Rentch J (2012) Novel Industrial single sided dry etching and texturing process for silicon solar cell improvement. Poster presented at the 27th European photovoltaic solar energy conference and exhibition. Frankfurt, Germany

    Google Scholar 

  9. Duffy E (2012) SOLNOWAT - Development of a competitive zero global warming potential (GWP) dry process to reduce the dramatic water consumption in the ever expanding solar cell manufacturing industry. D7.3 exploitation plan (interim). www.SOLNOWAT.com. Accessed 17 sep 2013

  10. European Commission (1995) ExternE: externalities of energy. Prepared by ETSU and IER for DGXII: science, research and development, Study EUR 16520-5 EN, Luxembourg

    Google Scholar 

  11. European Commission (2003) External costs. research results on socio-environmental damages due to electricity and transport. European Commission, Brussels (Directorate-General for Research Information and Communication Unit)

    Google Scholar 

  12. Forster P, Ramaswamy V, Artaxo P, Berntsen T, Betts R, Fahey D, Haywood J, Lean J, Lowe D, Myhre G, Nganga J, Prinn R, Raga G, Schulz M, Van Dorland R (2007) Changes in atmospheric constituents and in radiative forcing. In: Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. contribution of working group i to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch2s2-10-2.html. Accessed 17 Sep 2013

  13. Fthenakis VM, Kim HC (2007) Greenhouse-gas emissions from solar electric- and nuclear power: A life-cycle study. Energy Policy 35:2549–2557

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Fthenakis VM, Kim HC (2010) Photovoltaics: life-cycle analyses. Sol Energy 85(8):1609–1628

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Fthenakis VM, Kim HC, Alsema E (2008) Emissions from photovoltaic life cycles. Environ Sci Technol 42:2168–2174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Fujita K, Morimoto Y, Ogami A, Myojyo T, Tanaka I, Shimada M, Wang W, Endoh S, Uchida K, Nakazato T, Yamamoto K, Fukui H, Horie M, Yoshida Y, Iwahashi H, Nakanishi J (2009) Gene expression profiles in rat lung after inhalation exposure to C60 fullerene particles. Toxicology 258:47–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Jungbluth N (2005) Life cycle assessment of crystalline photovoltaics in the Swiss ecoinvent database. Prog Photovoltaics Res Appl 13:429–446

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Kuemmel B, Krüger Nielsen S, Sørensen B (1997) Life-cycle analysis of energy systems. Roskilde University Press, Roskilde

    Google Scholar 

  19. Kairstead L (2007) Behavioural responses to photovoltaic systems in the UK domestic sector. Energy Policy 35:4128–4141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Lewis RJ (1996) Sax’s dangerous properties of industrial materials, 9th edn. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York

    Google Scholar 

  21. Lewis RJ (ed) (1997) Hawley’s Condensed Chemical Dictionary. 13th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc

    Google Scholar 

  22. Linaschke D, Leistner M, Mäder G, Grählert W, Dani I, Kaskel S, Lopez E, Hopfe V, Kirschmann M, Frenck J (2008) Plasma enhanced chemical etching at atmospheric pressure for crystalline silicon wafer processing and process control by in-line FTIR gas spetroscopy. EU PVSEC Proceedings. Paper presented at the 23rd European photovoltaic solar energy conference and exhibition. Valencia, Spain: WIP Wirtschaft und Infrastruktur GmbH and Co Planungs KG, Sylvensteinstr. 2, 81369 München, Germany, 1907 – 1910

    Google Scholar 

  23. Lopez E, Beese H, Mäder G, Dani I, Hopfe V, Heintze M, Moeller R, Wanka H, Kirschmann M, Frenck J (2007) New developments in plasma enhanced chemical etching at atmospheric pressure for crystalline silicon wafer processing. The compiled state-of-the-art of PV solar technology and deployment. In: Proceedings of the international conference. Paper presented at the 22nd European photovoltaic solar energy conference and exhibition (EU PVSEC). European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Milan

    Google Scholar 

  24. Lopez E, Dani I, Hopfe V, Wanka H, Heintze M, Möller R, Hauser A (2006) Plasma enhanced chemical etching at atmospheric pressure for silicon wafer processing. In: Poortmans J (ed) 21st European photovoltaic solar energy conference 2006, European Commission, Joint Research Centre -JRC. Proceedings of the international conference held in Dresden (CD-ROM), Germany, 4–8 Sept 2006. WIP-Renewable Energies, Dresden, 1161–1166. http://publica.fraunhofer.de/documents/N-63736.html. Accessed 28 June 2013)

  25. Manzetti S, Andersen O (2012) Toxicological aspects of nanomaterials used in energy harvesting consumer electronics. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 16(1):2102–2110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Manzetti S, Behzadi H, Andersen O, van der Spool D (2013) Fullerenes toxicity and electronic properties. Environ Chem Lett 11(2):105–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Masters R, Coplan M (1999) Water treatment with silico-fluorides and lead toxicity. Int J Environ Sci (China) 56:435–449

    Google Scholar 

  28. Masters R, Coplan M, Hone B, Dykes J (2000) Association of silicofluoride treated water with elevated blood lead. Neurotoxicology 21(6):1091–1100

    Google Scholar 

  29. Nakagawa Y, Suzuki T, Ishii H, Nakae D, Ogata A (2011) Cytotoxic effects of hydroxylated fullerenes on isolated rat hepatocytes via mitochondrial dysfunction. Arch Toxicol 85:1429–1440

    Google Scholar 

  30. Oberdörster E, Zhu S, Blickley T, McClellan-Green P, Haasch M (2006) Ecotoxicology of carbon-based engineered nanoparticles: effects of fullerene (C60) on aquatic organisms. Carbon 44:1112–1120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Ozsvath D (2009) Fluorides and environmental health: a review. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 8:59–79

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Pehnt M (2006) Dynamic life cycle assessment (LCA) of renewable energy technologies. Renewable Energy 31:55–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Photovoltaics World (2011) Champions of photovoltaics: cells and modules. Photovoltaics World (October)

    Google Scholar 

  34. Phylipsen G, Alsema EA (1995) Environmental life-cycle assessment of multicrystalline silicon solar cell modules. Padualaan 14, NL-3584 CH Utrecht, Utrecht University, The Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  35. Piechulla P, Seiffe J, Hoffman M, Rentsch J and Preu R (2011) Increased ion energies for texturing in a high-throughput plasma tool. In: Proceedings at the 26th European photovoltaic energy conference. paper presented at the 26th European photovoltaic energy conference. Hamburg

    Google Scholar 

  36. Rentsch J, Jaus J, Roth K, Preu R (2005) Economical and ecological aspects of plasma processing for industrial solar cell fabrication. In: IEEE Xplore. Digital library. Conference record of the thirty-first IEEE. IEEE, pp 931–934

    Google Scholar 

  37. Schottler M, de Wild-Scholten M, Ruess S (2010) Gas abatement for crystalline silicon solar cell production. Photovoltaics Int (PV-Tech) 9:20–28

    Google Scholar 

  38. SCOEL (1998) Recommendation from scientific committee on occupational exposure limits for fluorine, hydrogen fluoride and inorganic fluorides (not uranium hexafluoride). European Commission

    Google Scholar 

  39. Stockman P (2009) Going green with on-site generated fluorine: sustainable cleaning agent for PECVD processes. In: Proceeding of: Photon’s 4th production equipment conference Munich March 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Tylenda CA (2003) Toxicological profile for fluorides, hydrogen fluoride, and fluorine (Update). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  41. Urbansky E, Schock M (2000) Can fluoride affect lead (ii) in potable water? Hexafluorosilicate and fluoride equilibria in aqueous solution. Int J Environ Stu 57:597–637

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Voltaix (2006) Material safety data sheet for: silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4). Voltaix, LLC Post Office Box 5357, North Branch, New Jersey 08876-5357. http://www.voltaix.com/images/doc/Mssi030_Silicon_Tetrafluoride.pdf. Accessed 28 June 2013

  43. Yamago S, Tokuyama H, Nakamura E, Kikuchi K, Kananishi S, Sueki K, Nakahara H, Enomoto S, Ambe F (1995) In vivo biological behavior of a water-miscible fullerene: 14C labeling, absorption, distribution, excretion and acute toxicity. Chem Biol 2:385–389

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Zehner O (2011) Unintended consequences of green technologies. In: Robbins P et al (eds) Green technology. Sage, London, pp 427–432

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Western Norway Research Institute, Kaupanger, Norway

    Otto Andersen

Authors
  1. Otto Andersen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Otto Andersen .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer-Verlag London

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Andersen, O. (2013). Solar Cell Production. In: Unintended Consequences of Renewable Energy. Green Energy and Technology. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-5532-4_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-5532-4_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-5531-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-5532-4

  • eBook Packages: EnergyEnergy (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation