Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Classification of Cardiovascular Disease Risk and Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Women

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Management of Cardiovascular Disease in Women

  • 992 Accesses

Abstract

In 1948, the USA Public Health Service initiated the Framingham Heart Study to assess the epidemiology and risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD). It was the first such study of its kind—a well-constructed and longitudinally observed cohort. Men and women between the ages of 30 and 62 (5,209 individuals in total), free of CVD, were recruited from Framingham, MA beginning in 1948. Publications from the late 1950s and early 1960s associated with the Framingham Heart Study became some of the first publications to use of the term “risk factor.” The term was thus broadly coined and accepted, used today as generalized patterns that suggest a predilection to developing heart disease. Analyses looked at patterns of elevated cholesterol, higher levels of blood pressure, and cigarette smoking and found that these identified elements combined to increase one’s risk of developing coronary heart disease (CHD) over 6 years of follow up [1].

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Wilson PWF, et al. Prediction of coronary heart disease events part 1: the role of traditional risk factors. Circulation. 1998;97:1837–47.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Bitton A, Gaziano TA. The Framingham Heart Study’s impact on global risk assessment. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2010;53:68–78.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Kannel WB. The Framingham Study: historical insight on the impact of cardiovascular risk factors in men versus women. J Gend Specif Med. 2002;5:27–37.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Lloyd-Jones DM, Larson MG, Beiser A, Levy D. Lifetime risk of developing coronary heart disease. Lancet. 1999;353:89–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Melloni C, et al. Representation of women in randomized clinical trials of cardiovascular disease prevention. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2010;3:135–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Mosca L, et al. Guide to preventive cardiology for women. AHA/ACC scientific statement consensus panel statement. Circulation. 1999;99:2480–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Writing Group Members, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2012 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2011;125:e2–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Vaccarino V, et al. Ischaemic heart disease in women: are there sex differences in pathophysiology and risk factors? Position paper from the working group on coronary pathophysiology and microcirculation of the European Society of Cardiology. Cardiovasc Res. 2011;90:9–17.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Stampfer MJ, et al. Postmenopausal estrogen therapy and cardiovascular disease. Ten-year follow-up from the nurses’ health study. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:756–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Mosca L, et al. Effectiveness-based guidelines for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in women—2011 update a guideline from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2011;123:1243–62.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Heart disease – MayoClinic.com at: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/heart-disease/DS01120.

  12. Coronary artery disease – MayoClinic.com at: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/coronary-artery-disease/DS00064.

  13. Grundy SM, et al. Primary prevention of coronary heart disease: guidance from Framingham: a statement for healthcare professionals from the AHA Task Force on Risk Reduction. American Heart Association. Circulation. 1998;97:1876–87.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation. 2002;106:3143–421.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Novella S, Dantas AP, Segarra G, Medina P, Hermenegildo C. Vascular aging in women: is estrogen the fountain of youth? Front Physiol. 2012;3:165.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Kneale BJ, Chowienczyk PJ, Brett SE, Coltart DJ, Ritter JM. Gender differences in sensitivity to adrenergic agonists of forearm resistance vasculature. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36:1233–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Vitale C, Fini M, Speziale G, Chierchia S. Gender differences in the cardiovascular effects of sex hormones. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 2010;24:675–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Roqué M, et al. Short-term effects of transdermal estrogen replacement therapy on coronary vascular reactivity in postmenopausal women with angina pectoris and normal results on coronary angiograms. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;31:139–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Matthews KA, et al. Are changes in cardiovascular disease risk factors in midlife women due to chronological aging or to the menopausal transition? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54:2366–73.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Tousignant-Laflamme Y, Marchand S. Excitatory and inhibitory pain mechanisms during the menstrual cycle in healthy women. Pain. 2009;146:47–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Rosano GM, et al. 17-beta-estradiol therapy lessens angina in postmenopausal women with syndrome X. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;28:1500–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Speroff L. The heart and estrogen/progestin replacement study (HERS). Maturitas. 1998;31:9–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Rossouw JE, et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288:321–33.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Thun MJ, et al. 50-year trends in smoking-related mortality in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:351–64.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Huxley RR, Woodward M. Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for coronary heart disease in women compared with men: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Lancet. 2011;378:1297–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Jha P, et al. 21st-century hazards of smoking and benefits of cessation in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:341–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Stramba-Badiale M, et al. Cardiovascular diseases in women: a statement from the policy conference of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2006;27:994–1005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Messerli FH, et al. Disparate cardiovascular findings in men and women with essential hypertension. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107:158–61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Mosca L. Management of dyslipidemia in women in the post-hormone therapy era. J Gen Intern Med. 2005;20:297–305.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Hokanson JE, Austin MA. Plasma triglyceride level is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease independent of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level: a meta-analysis of population-based prospective studies. J Cardiovasc Risk. 1996;3:213–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Bass KM, Newschaffer CJ, Klag MJ, Bush TL. Plasma lipoprotein levels as predictors of cardiovascular death in women. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:2209–16.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Gordon T, Castelli WP, Hjortland MC, Kannel WB, Dawber TR. High density lipoprotein as a protective factor against coronary heart disease. The Framingham Study. Am J Med. 1977;62:707–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Boden WE. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol as an independent risk factor in cardiovascular disease: assessing the data from Framingham to the Veterans Affairs High–Density Lipoprotein Intervention Trial. Am J Cardiol. 2000;86:19L–22.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Manolio TA, et al. Cholesterol and heart disease in older persons and women. Review of an NHLBI workshop. Ann Epidemiol. 1992;2:161–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Booth GL, Kapral MK, Fung K, Tu JV. Relation between age and cardiovascular disease in men and women with diabetes compared with non-diabetic people: a population-based retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2006;368:29–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Wenger NK. Should women have a different risk assessment from men for primary prevention of coronary heart disease? J Womens Health Gend Based Med. 1999;8:465–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Roger VL, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics–2011 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2011;123:e18–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH, Willett WC. Body weight and longevity. A reassessment. JAMA. 1987;257:353–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Wilson PW. Prediction of coronary heart disease events part 2: the contribution of lifestyle factors and new issues. Cardiol Rounds. 2004(8).

    Google Scholar 

  40. Tofler G. Psychosocial and other social factors in acute myocardial infarction. UpToDate 2013 At: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/psychosocial-and-other-social-factors-in-acute-myocardial-infarction?detectedLanguage=en&source=search_result&search=psychosocial+risk+factors+cardiovascular&selectedTitle=1%7E150&provider=noProvider.

  41. Yusuf S, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case–control study. Lancet. 2004;364:937–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Salmon JE, Roman MJ. Subclinical atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med. 2008;121:S3–8.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Esdaile JM, et al. Traditional Framingham risk factors fail to fully account for accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;44:2331–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Manzi S, et al. Age-specific incidence rates of myocardial infarction and angina in women with systemic lupus erythematosus: comparison with the Framingham Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1997;145:408–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Roman MJ, et al. Prevalence and correlates of accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:2399–406.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Manzi S, Wasko MC. Inflammation-mediated rheumatic diseases and atherosclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2000;59:321–5.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Roman MJ, et al. Arterial stiffness in chronic inflammatory diseases. Hypertension. 2005;46:194–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Asanuma Y, et al. Premature coronary-artery atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Medicine. 2003;349:2407–15.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Wenger NK. Women and coronary heart disease: a century after Herrick: understudied, underdiagnosed, and undertreated. Circulation. 2012;126:604–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Hahn BH. Systemic lupus erythematosus and accelerated atherosclerosis. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:2379–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Helfand M, et al. Emerging risk factors for coronary heart disease: a summary of systematic reviews conducted for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2009;151:496–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Cook NR, et al. Comparison of the Framingham and Reynolds Risk scores for global cardiovascular risk prediction in the multiethnic Women’s Health Initiative. Circulation. 2012;125(1748–1756):S1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Chobanian AV, et al. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA. 2003;289:2560–72.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Willey JZ, Elkind MSV. 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitors in the treatment of central nervous system diseases. Arch Neurol. 2010;67:1062–7.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Daniels LB, et al. Is diabetes mellitus a heart disease equivalent in women? Results from an international study of postmenopausal women in the Raloxifene Use for the Heart (RUTH) trial. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2013;6:164–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Ridker PM, et al. A randomized trial of low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1293–304.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Final report on the aspirin component of the ongoing Physicians’ Health Study. Steering Committee of the Physicians’ Health Study Research Group. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:129–35.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Rosamond W, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics–2007 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2007;115:e69–171.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Wilson PW, et al. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation. 1998;97:1837–47.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, And Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol In Adults. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (adult treatment panel III). JAMA. 2001;285:2486–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Wood D, et al. Prevention of coronary heart disease in clinical practice: recommendations of the Second Joint Task Force of European and other Societies on coronary prevention. Atherosclerosis. 1998;140:199–270.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Khot UN, et al. Prevalence of conventional risk factors in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2003;290:898–904.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Akosah KO, Schaper A, Cogbill C, Schoenfeld P. Preventing myocardial infarction in the young adult in the first place: how do the National Cholesterol Education Panel III guidelines perform? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:1475–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Nasir K, Michos ED, Blumenthal RS, Raggi P. Detection of high-risk young adults and women by coronary calcium and National Cholesterol Education Program Panel III Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;46:1931–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Michos ED, et al. Framingham risk equation underestimates subclinical atherosclerosis risk in asymptomatic women. Atherosclerosis. 2006;184:201–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Michos ED, et al. Women with a low Framingham risk score and a family history of premature coronary heart disease have a high prevalence of subclinical coronary atherosclerosis. Am Heart J. 2005;150:1276–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Ridker PM, Buring JE, Rifai N, Cook NR. Development and validation of improved algorithms for the assessment of global cardiovascular risk in women: the Reynolds Risk Score. JAMA. 2007;297:611–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Lloyd-Jones DM, et al. Defining and setting national goals for cardiovascular health promotion and disease reduction the American Heart Association’s Strategic Impact Goal through 2020 and beyond. Circulation. 2010;121:586–613.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. O’Regan C, Wu P, Arora P, Perri D, Mills EJ. Statin therapy in stroke prevention: a meta-analysis involving 121,000 patients. Am J Med. 2008;121:24–33.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Grundy SM, et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. Circulation. 2004;110:227–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Taylor F, et al. Statins for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. (The Cochrane Collaboration and Taylor F, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2013) at: http://summaries.cochrane.org/CD004816/statins-for-the-primary-prevention-of-cardiovascular-disease.

  72. The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with statin therapy in people at low risk of vascular disease: meta-analysis of individual data from 27 randomised trials: the Lancet at: http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(12)60367-5/abstract.

  73. Petretta M, Costanzo P, Perrone-Filardi P, Chiariello M. Impact of gender in primary prevention of coronary heart disease with statin therapy: a meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol. 2010;138:25–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Walsh JME, Pignone M. Drug treatment of hyperlipidemia in women. JAMA. 2004;291:2243–52.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Wenger NK, Lewis SJ, Welty FK, Herrington DM, Bittner V. Beneficial effects of aggressive low-density lipoprotein cholesterol lowering in women with stable coronary heart disease in the Treating to New Targets (TNT) study. Heart. 2008;94:434–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20 536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebocontrolled trial. Lancet. 2002;360:7–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Ridker PM, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2195–207.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Kostis WJ, Cheng JQ, Dobrzynski JM, Cabrera J, Kostis JB. Meta-analysis of statin effects in women versus men. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;59:572–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Wenger NK. Lipid abnormalities in women: data for risk, data for management. Cardiol Rev. 2006;14:276–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Matthews KA, Kuller LH, Sutton-Tyrrell K, Chang YF. Changes in cardiovascular risk factors during the perimenopause and postmenopause and carotid artery atherosclerosis in healthy women. Stroke. 2001;32:1104–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Wenger NK. Preventing cardiovascular disease in women: an update. Clin Cardiol. 2008;31:109–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Ansell BJ, et al. Reduced treatment success in lipid management among women with coronary heart disease or risk equivalents: results of a national survey. Am Heart J. 2006;152:976–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Stone NJ, et al. ACC/AHA Guideline on the Treatment of Blood Cholesterol to Reduce Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Risk in Adults. A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2013.11.002.

  84. Hayward RA, Krumholz HM. Three Reasons to Abandon Low-Density Lipoprotein Targets An Open Letter to the Adult Treatment Panel IV of the National Institutes of Health. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2012;5:2–5.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Stampfer MJ, Hu FB, Manson JE, Rimm EB, Willett WC. Primary prevention of coronary heart disease in women through diet and lifestyle. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:16–22.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Stamler J, et al. Low risk-factor profile and long-term cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality and life expectancy: findings for 5 large cohorts of young adult and middle-aged men and women. JAMA. 1999;282:2012–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Roberts JM, Hubel CA. Pregnancy: a screening test for later life cardiovascular disease. Womens Health Issues. 2010;20:304–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Miller NH. Compliance with treatment regimens in chronic asymptomatic diseases. Am J Med. 1997;102:43–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Miller MA. Gender-based differences in the toxicity of pharmaceuticals–the Food and Drug Administration’s perspective. Int J Toxicol. 2001;20:149–52.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Drug Safety and Availability > FDA Drug Safety Communication: important safety label changes to cholesterol-lowering statin drugs at: http://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/ucm293101.htm.

  91. Jacobson TA. Toward‘pain-free’ toward statin prescribing: clinical algorithm for diagnosis and management of myalgia. Mayo Clin Proc. 2008;83:687–700.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Harper CR, Jacobson TA. The broad spectrum of statin myopathy: from myalgia to rhabdomyolysis. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2007;18:401–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Mancini GBJ, et al. Diagnosis, prevention, and management of statin adverse effects and intolerance: proceedings of a Canadian Working Group Consensus Conference. Can J Cardiol. 2011;27:635–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Backes JM, Moriarty PM, Ruisinger JF, Gibson CA. Effects of once weekly rosuvastatin among patients with a prior statin intolerance. Am J Cardiol. 2007;100:554–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Backes JM, et al. Effectiveness and tolerability of every-other-day rosuvastatin dosing in patients with prior statin intolerance. Ann Pharmacother. 2008;42:341–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Muldoon MF, Ryan CM, Sereika SM, Flory JD, Manuck SB. Randomized trial of the effects of simvastatin on cognitive functioning in hypercholesterolemic adults. Am J Med. 2004;117:823–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Rojas-Fernandez CH, Cameron J-CF. Is Statin-associated cognitive impairment clinically relevant? A narrative review and clinical recommendations. Ann Pharmacother. 2012;46:549–57.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Golomb BA, Evans M. Effects of statins on energy and fatigue with exertion: results from a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172:1180–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Waters DD, et al. Predictors of new-onset diabetes in patients treated with atorvastatin: results from 3 large randomized clinical trials. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;57:1535–45.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Ridker PM, Pradhan A, MacFadyen JG, Libby P, Glynn RJ. Cardiovascular benefits and diabetes risks of Statin therapy in primary prevention: an analysis from the JUPITER trial. Lancet. 2012;380:565–71.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Rajpathak SN, et al. Statin therapy and risk of developing type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 2009;32:1924–9.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Sattar N, et al. Statins and risk of incident diabetes: a collaborative meta-analysis of randomised statin trials. Lancet. 2010;375:735–42.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Culver AL, Ockene I. STatin use and risk of diabetes mellitus in postmenopausal women in the women’s health initiative. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172:144–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Meagher EA. Addressing cardiovascular disease in women: focus on dyslipidemia. J Am Board Fam Pract. 2004;17:424–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Shaw L, et al. Insights From the NHLBI-Sponsored Women’s Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE) Study: part I: gender differences in traditional and novel risk factors, symptom evaluation, and gender-optimized diagnostic strategies. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47(3 Suppl):S4–S20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA

    Rebecca Lewandowski MD, PhD

  2. Department of Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA

    Catherine Gracey MD

Authors
  1. Rebecca Lewandowski MD, PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Catherine Gracey MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Catherine Gracey MD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Cardiology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA

    Hanna Z. Mieszczanska

  2. Division of Cardiology, University of Florida College of Medicine Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Florida, USA

    Gladys P. Velarde

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer-Verlag London

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Lewandowski, R., Gracey, C. (2014). Classification of Cardiovascular Disease Risk and Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Women. In: Mieszczanska, H., Velarde, G. (eds) Management of Cardiovascular Disease in Women. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-5517-1_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-5517-1_2

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-5516-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-5517-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation