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Conceptual Framework and Research Design

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The Anticipation of Converging Industries

Abstract

After the practical relevance of an anticipation of areas of convergence has been underlined in the last chapter, the following paragraphs will discuss the theoretical reasoning for it.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    It is estimated that digestive/gut health is the largest sector of NFF, followed by the heart health market with a wide selection of products aiming especially at lowering the risk of cholesterol-related cardiovascular diseases [cf. 1].

  2. 2.

    For a more detailed discussion of NFF as a setting of convergence see especially [2, pp. 131ff.; 3]. For further literature on NFF see Sect. 4.3.

  3. 3.

    For a detailed discussion of different theories’ possible contribution in explaining strategic actions in the light of convergence (and especially market convergence), see [4, pp. 35ff.].

  4. 4.

    It is still being discussed whether the resource-based view should actually be considered (and called) the RBT. As RBV is the more widely used expression, it will be used in the study at hand. For a detailed discussion regarding RBV/RBT see, e.g., [5, pp. 11ff.]. See also Acedo, Barroso and Galan, who delimit the general framework of the RBT from the main trends: RBV, KBV (knowledge-based view), and the relational view [6, p. 621].

  5. 5.

    In this article, the authors provide a detailed overview of the RBV’s possible weaknesses and critiques. In summary, they draw the conclusion that the RBV can withstand five of the eight discussed critiques quite well, while the explanations on resource, value, and competitive advantage should be widened in future developments of this theory. In any case, the ‘ultimate challenge’ to the RBV lies in its conclusions being proven to be right or wrong for larger ‘populations of firms’ and not so much in the verification of single constructs [cf. 9, p. 530; 10, p. 1142].

  6. 6.

    He actually sees the building of special values and a distinctive competence as a prime function of leadership [cf. 11, p. 27].

  7. 7.

    It is not intended in the present study to provide a comprehensive introduction to the RBV. In fact, this section is meant to briefly introduce the RBV as a theory to explain firms’ actions in a setting of convergence and as a foundation for the present study’s research questions laid out in Sect. 4.2. For more in-depth discussions of the RBV see, e.g., [5, 6, 8, 14–17].

  8. 8.

    Although firms are expected to exhibit greater similarity regarding their resource profile in intra-industry than in inter-industry settings cf., e.g., [2, p. 94; 18, p. 83].

  9. 9.

    A resource’s value will most likely lie in reducing costs or increasing the value of a product or process to customers; competitors will experience difficulties in trying to substitute it with another resource or to imitate it; and it will be too rare to be equally sourced by competitors [cf. 10, p. 1142].

  10. 10.

    For a review of different definitions of resources and authors’ use of them see, e.g., [17, pp. 463ff.].

  11. 11.

    While this study mainly uses the term ‘resources’, the term ‘assets’ will be used interchangeably, where appropriate. This has also been done by, e.g., [2, 18, 21, 22].

  12. 12.

    Naturally, not all of these assets are of strategic importance.

  13. 13.

    zu Knyphausen-Aufseß also delineates both theories from each other, stressing the general outside perspective of the organization.

  14. 14.

    While knowledge may often refer to hardly explicable knowledge or trade secrets, DeCarolis and Deeds view patents as “representative of stocks of organizational knowledge” [cf. 7, p. 958].

  15. 15.

    In contrast to this study and other cited works, they actually view ‘component competence’ as including resources and not as a capability to deploy resources. Thus, in the remainder of the text ‘competence’ will be replaced by ‘capabilities’ to account for this difference.

  16. 16.

    Generally, due to tight regulations in respect to pharmaceutical drugs, the development process is highly structured into different stages of discovery and pre-clinical trials as well as four “phases” during clinical trials. As most of the actions within drug development need to be registered with the authorities, this process can be more easily monitored than in most other industries [cf., e.g., 26, pp. 205f].

  17. 17.

    [cf. 19, p. 115], for a discussion of reputation as a source for competitive advantage. According to his line of reasoning, reputation (which is a large part of a brand name’s value) will only serve as a resource, if not all firms have good reputations and they are thus rare and inimitable.

  18. 18.

    See, e.g., [2, pp. 137f], for an overview of competency differences between the food and the pharmaceutical industries. Of course, the pharmaceutical industry also puts a lot of effort into marketing its products, especially when selling (or competing with) so-called “generic drugs” (generics). Generics are pharmaceutical drugs that are largely ‘imitations’ of “original drugs”, after expiry of their patent protection. As generics manufacturers are facing substantially lower development costs, these generics sell at considerably lower prices. This leads to an increased competition between all the producers of drugs with the respective indication and mostly to increased marketing efforts.

  19. 19.

    See also [7, p. 954].

  20. 20.

    According to the reasoning of Yeoh and Roth, internal R&D efforts are more efficient and in the long run also more productive, as economies of experience can be acquired. This argument appears reasonable for well established therapeutic areas, but less convincing against a background of drying product pipelines and a tendency of large pharmaceutical companies to gain access to new knowledge and new drug candidates by acquisition of especially smaller biotech companies. In respect to therapeutic market focus, they highlight the importance of such a focus on single therapeutic markets, as understanding of complex diseases and treatments as well as the respective markets makes shifting from one to the other (or adding a new one) a rather costly adventure.

  21. 21.

    Drug approval success is seen as mirroring a company’s accumulated R&D competence, which lead to an approved drug in more cases than in a less successful company. Generally, the probability of any substance reaching approval as a pharmaceutical drug is about 0.01 %. (Relative) emphasis on radical innovation refers to more effort put into developing new compound entities rather than modifying or combining existing products.

  22. 22.

    Who conclude their study with the assessment that the “pharmaceutical industry requires firm strategies that capitalize on resources and capabilities” [20, p. 649].

  23. 23.

    A firm’s knowledge stock is deemed to be critical for a sustained competitive advantage, especially in dynamic environments [cf. 7, p. 965].

  24. 24.

    See also [7, p. 964].

  25. 25.

    Acknowledging the fact, that terms like ‘good performance’ or ‘success’ are rather fuzzy and have been defined and especially operationalized very differently in literature, they are only used for illustrative purposes. No specific definition and operationalization is therefore provided here.

  26. 26.

    When core competencies become weaknesses they are sometimes called core rigidities cf., e.g., [29, p. 28].

  27. 27.

    In contrast to the RBV with its proven strong empirical support, managers should not “invest heavily in guidance grounded in a theoretical perspective that has only modest support” [10, p. 1151].

  28. 28.

    This better assessment does, of course, not have to be grounded on an in-depth rational analysis. While it may as well be the result of a ‘lucky guess’, firms should strive to employ methods ridding them of coincidental factors.

  29. 29.

    The 1973/1974 oil crisis was marked by exploding costs for oil and oil-derived fuels as a reaction to rationing by the affected governments. This was necessary as crude oil supplies were cut back by an embargo of the Arabian OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) members to the USA, Japan, and several European countries. Caused by opposition to the (anticipated) US and European support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War, it is interpreted as a first massive manifestation of ‘the oil weapon’. Most scholars attribute this embargo not only to a political reasoning, but also the target to increase earnings created by oil exports and to shift bargaining power from buyers to sellers of oil. Besides the broad political effects, the oil crisis also led to a major global economic crisis in the following. For an in-depth analysis of the triggers, drivers, and effects of the oil crisis see, e.g., [30, 31].

  30. 30.

    This is particularly the case, where companies will collectively engage in industrial organizations to agree on industry standards, but also to influence public opinion as well as individual politicians and governments.

  31. 31.

    See, e.g., customers’ reactions to Apple’s various iPad and iPhone models. Many consumers have pre-ordered them without ever having seen it (other than on pictures and videos). Of course, this was partly due to fascination with the product and its functionalities. But unarguably, peoples’ trust in Apple and the functionalities of its products also played a considerable role. Similar reactions to brands can be observed prior to the introduction of new models of some exclusive luxury car makers.

  32. 32.

    This refers mainly to scientific publications and patent documents as proxies for different steps of the convergence process. It is decided by two factors. First, only if science convergence can at all be tracked in scientific publications, they can also be used to assess the degree of convergence on different levels. Second, if scientific publications are to serve as a precursor of developments in technologies and eventually industries, science convergence must be traceable in them earlier than in patent documents.

  33. 33.

    It will be part of the results and discussion sections to answer the question whether one converged industry of cosmetics, food, and pharmaceuticals is likely to be formed at the intersection of these three distinct industries.

  34. 34.

    What exactly constitutes a ‘developed country’ is a considerably contentious issue in a longstanding debate. Within this study, it is used to describe countries that are generally regarded as having a highly industrialized economy and a very high standard of living. Ample definitions and indicators are employed by many organizations. One largely accepted is the human development index (HDI) used by the United Nations Development Programme and comprised proxies for measuring long and healthy lives, access to knowledge, and a decent standard of living. In the 2009 version, 38 countries are listed as having a very high human development status (HDI ranks 1–38), including, e.g., most of Europe; Australia and New Zealand; Hong Kong, Japan, Republic of Korea and Singapore; Israel, Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates; Canada and the USA [cf. 35]. In the context of food and eating habits, other countries would have to be included in so far as parts of their population were leading a lifestyle typical for developed countries. See the remainder of this paragraph for a further short explanation.

  35. 35.

    This definition is a modification of the FUFOSE definition to be found in an article attributed to Diplock et al. [42, p. S6].

  36. 36.

    Notwithstanding good reasons for including such food products into a definition of NFF, their existence is not a result of innovative activities caused by drivers of convergence. Even if their marketing would be altered (which is often being done in respect to health beneficial natural ingredients) to highlight the physiological effects, these activities could not be observed on the basis of an anticipation approach. Such shifts in marketing foci would hardly be reported in any of the suggested data sources, with the likely exception of companies’ websites or similar marketing channels.

  37. 37.

    Accentuation according to original document.

  38. 38.

    This is done mainly because the lines between conventional foods and Functional Foods as well as between Nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical drugs are similarly fine. Accordingly, an exclusion of Nutraceuticals from the further analyses could be justifiably challenged as being basically arbitrary. Furthermore, there is no reason to believe that fading boundaries between the food and the pharmaceutical industries would per se favor the appearance of either of the two product groups.

  39. 39.

    See also [45, p. 62].

  40. 40.

    See Sect. 4.3.3.3 for the concept and use of ‘health claims’ in NFF.

  41. 41.

    Efficacy is a term mainly used in the pharmaceutical sciences. Efficacy is tested in respect to the question whether a treatment does more good than harm when delivered under optimum conditions. In contrast to that, effectiveness is tested under real-world conditions. Consequently, efficacy is necessary but not sufficient to achieve effectiveness [cf. 46, p. 451; see also 47, pp. 1261ff.].

  42. 42.

    The lack of effectiveness based on typical diets is one major criticism in respect to NFF, even where authors accept the validity of a claimed proof of efficacy.

  43. 43.

    The largely preventive nature of NFF is a widely accepted difference to pharmaceutical drugs. While they may as well have the target to provide future benefits, many drugs are used for an immediate effect. While this immediate effect may be achieved by consumption of NFF as well (see, e.g., the description of phytosterols in Sect. 4.3.3), it is almost always targeted at the prevention of future adverse health effects [cf. 2, p. 144; 48, p. 408].

  44. 44.

    According to Leatherhead Food International, consumer sales in the USA are comprised about 40/35/25 % heart/gut/bone-related NFF.

  45. 45.

    A particularly detailed list of functions is provided in Ref. [49, p. S410]. And 24 different functions are listed to be considered under Chinese food regulation: immune regulation, postponement of senility, memory improvement, promotion of growth and development, anti-fatigue, body weight reduction, oxygen deficit tolerance, radiation protection, anti-mutation, anti-tumor, blood lipid regulation, improvement of sexual potency, blood glucose regulation, gastrointestinal function improvement, sleep improvement, improvement of nutritional anemia, protection of liver from chemical damage, lactation improvement, improvement for beauty, vision improvement, promotion of lead removal, removal of ‘intense heat’ from the throat and moistening of the throat, blood pressure regulation, and enhancement of bone calcification.

  46. 46.

    These differences will also be briefly discussed in Sect. 4.3.4.

  47. 47.

    Many of the aspects considering individual substance classes and their use in NFF are similar when considering different classes; hence a discussion of one class may serve well as an example for most of the classes. Furthermore, phytosterols were chosen because of their use as an example in the remainder of the study. See particularly Sect. 5.1 for the results on convergence anticipation in the area of phytosterols and Sects. 6.1.1, 6.1.2, 6.1.3 for a discussion of these results. For a more comprehensive coverage of different substances in NFF, their commercial viability as well as regulatory activities and public perception cf., e.g., [36, 51, 53]. For a comprehensive analysis of phytosterols in respect of chemical, biological, medical, regulatory, and marketing aspects see also [54].

  48. 48.

    For a more detailed description of biological functions of phytosterols see, e.g., [cf. 56, p. 939, 57–61].

  49. 49.

    In addition to different classification hierarchies of phytosterols and phytostanols, nomenclature of phytosterols is particularly confusing as researchers and companies follow international attempts at standardization only in part. Two main streams are following the IUPAC-IUB [IUPAC = International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry; IUB = International Union of Biochemistry, now the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB)] recommendations of 1976 and 1989, which are numbering the carbon atoms of the C-24 functional group as C-28, 29, and C241, 24², respectively. This study will instead use the common (trivial) names, as is mainly done by regulators and companies as well [cf. 56, p. 460].

  50. 50.

    In plant tissues, phytosterols occur in these four forms: as the free alcohol, fatty acids, steryl glycosides, and acylated steryl glycosides. While the hydroxyl group at C-3 is underivatized in the free alcohol, it is covalently bound to other constituents in the three latter phytosterol conjugates [cf. 56, pp. 465ff.]. They also report on differences in phytosterol forms in individual species and tissues.

  51. 51.

    In contrast, bananas, apples and tomatoes, for example, only contain 160, 120, and 70 mg/kg edible portion, respectively. Furthermore, see [57, p. 947], who also compare crude oil contents with up to 15.57 and 32.25 g/kg phytosterol content in crude corn oil and rice bran oil, respectively. Unsurprisingly, phytosterol concentrations vary greatly with different production processes and steps. Phytosterols are also commonly derived from tall oil, a by-product in the production of wood pulp from coniferous trees. For a list of commercial suppliers of phytosterols and their sourcing from tall oil or vegetable oil, see [66, pp. 3ff].

  52. 52.

    Piironen et al. provide a comprehensive overview of phytosterol contents in various foods.

  53. 53.

    According to Calpe-Berdiel et al., these three phytosterols represent more than 95 % of total phytosterol dietary intake [cf. 63, p. 19].

  54. 54.

    [cf. 56, pp. 465ff] for a more detailed description of phytosterol composition in different species and organs.

  55. 55.

    For a comprehensive overview of phytosterol stereochemistry see, e.g., [56].

  56. 56.

    Ostlund reports on a greater variance in the estimated daily intake, ranging from 167 to 437 mg [cf. 65, p. 537]. Even higher values are provided by Poli et al. for people in Mediterranean countries (500–600 mg/d) [cf. 67, p. S10].

  57. 57.

    LDL = low density lipoprotein. LDLs are the parts of IDLs (intermediate density lipoproteins) not taken up by the liver and serve as the most important carriers of cholesterol in the blood. These IDLs are formed from VLDLs (very low density lipoproteins), which serve as a transporter of unnecessary cholesterol and triacylglycerine from the liver into the blood. In contrast to LDLs, which are carrying cholesterol to peripheral tissues and regulate the de-novo synthesis of cholesterol there, HDLs (high density lipoproteins) take up cholesterol from dead cells and transport it back to the liver or transfer it to VLDLs or LDLs [cf. 68, pp. 800f].

  58. 58.

    For a more precise description of the molecular actions of phytosterols in cholesterol metabolism and a review of recent studies, see [63].

  59. 59.

    For Europe, the British Heart Foundation has estimated cardiovascular diseases to cause costs of approximately €110 billion in 2006, nearly 10 % of total healthcare expenditures, underlining the medical and economic importance of potential improvements to heart health [cf. 69, p. 21].

  60. 60.

    Statins block the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase or HMGR), the rate-controlling enzyme in the metabolic pathway producing cholesterol in the liver. [cf. 68, pp. 804f] These statins include different active pharmaceutical ingredients such as rosuvastatin, lovastatin, and atorvastatin. Atorvastatin is marketed by Pfizer under the brand name LIPITOR®, constituting the best-selling prescription pharmaceutical product in the world (2009 sales at US$ 11.4 billion), despite lower sales than in previous years (US$ 12.4 billion in 2008 and 12.7 billion in 2007) [cf. 71, p. 21].

  61. 61.

    See Sect. 4.3.3.3 for a discussion of phytosterol use in NFF.

  62. 62.

    In their study reduction amounted to 14.1 % within 12 months of 2.6 g/d sitostanol ester consumed.

  63. 63.

    For a comprehensive discussion of the different studies on ‘health-promoting effects of phytosterols’ and their subtypes see, e.g., [56, 57, 77].

  64. 64.

    For a further discussion of this finding see also [78].

  65. 65.

    It would go beyond the scope of this study to discuss in length the different positive and negative aspects of each individual substance. In addition to efficacy, bioavailability, and ease of preparation other factors such as raw material availability and prices would have to be taken into account as well. See, e.g., [56] For example, absorption and resulting availability of phytosterols is one central point in efficacy discussions already since 1959 [cf. 79].

  66. 66.

    Poli et al. also stress the fact that dosage in excess of about 2.5 g/d does not provide additional benefits [cf. 67, p. S11]. This significant reduction is underlined by other studies investigating the effects of lowered cholesterol levels on heart disease prevention. For instance, Law et al. found that a long-term reduction in serum concentration of 10 % led to a lowering of the risk of ischemic heart disease of between 20 and 50 % [cf. 80, p. 367].

  67. 67.

    The original quotations are two identical sentences with either sterol or stanol. Based on the data available at the time of the ruling, the FDA required these health claims to recommend a daily intake of 3.4 g stanyl esters and only 1.3 g of steryl esters (or the respective amounts in free stanols/sterols) [cf. 77, p. 54712]. According to Moreau et al. this was caused by the on average higher dosages administered in stanol studies compared to such with sterols [cf. 56, p. 488].

  68. 68.

    However, they also stress the limitations of their study in respect to generalizability due to patient sample composition.

  69. 69.

    For potential anticancerogenic effects see also, e.g., [82–84].

  70. 70.

    This inherited sterol storage disease with a strong predisposition to premature coronary atherosclerosis is very rare. In fact, research showed a reduction of serum sterol levels under administration of the unabsorbable sitostanol, possibly by competitive inhibition of sterol absorption [cf. 85, pp. 181ff.]. For other potentially affected patients see also [86].

  71. 71.

    Natural vitamin E includes actually eight distinct molecules: α-, β-, γ-, and δ-tocopherol as well as α-, β-, γ-, and δ-tocotrienol [cf. 87, p. 692]. However, only α-tocopherol meets human vitamin E requirements and is thus often referred to as ‘the’ vitamin E [cf. 88, p. 5].

  72. 72.

    Antioxidants may protect cells in the human bodies against free radicals that stem from, e.g., the breakdown of consumed food, smoke, or radiation and are believed to play a role in heart disease, cancer, and other diseases [cf. 89].

  73. 73.

    Slightly different findings are reported by Chen et al. who find qualitatively comparable but larger deviations in tocopherol and carotene levels [cf. 81, pp. 277ff.].

  74. 74.

    Moreau et al. also mention the possibility that free sterols and stanols could have a lesser adverse effect on the absorption of antioxidants.

  75. 75.

    Quotation translated by the author. They are also used in low concentrations (e.g., thrice daily 20 mg) pharmaceutical drugs like, e.g., in Germany Schwarz Pharma’s Harzol®, Triastonal® and Sitosterin Prostata-Kapseln or Sandoz’ Azuprostat Sandoz® (twice daily 65 mg) for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia [cf. 97].

  76. 76.

    Starling covers the introduction of Right Direction Foods’ Right Direction Cookies, which did interestingly not carry the FDA approved health claim due to trans fat and sugar content.

  77. 77.

    See Sect. 4.3.4.2 for a brief overview of regulation of NFF in Japan, the USA and the EU.

  78. 78.

    In other countries, like the USA, the Benecol brand is marketed by McNeil Nutritionals (part of Johnson & Johnson) [cf. 101].

  79. 79.

    Although EFSA did also voice a positive opinion in regard to Danone’s Danacol products, these are still awaiting a decision by the European Commission. EFSA is in the process of reviewing in total more than 175 claims in relation to cholesterol and CHD.

  80. 80.

    Apparently, it does in fact not make a difference whether phytosterols are consumed in the form of Nutraceuticals or FF, or as pharmaceutical drugs. Hence, it would be up to the consumer to decide on the most convenient (and economical) way of securing a daily dose of phytosterols.

  81. 81.

    Yoghurts (drinks) have experienced considerably higher growth rates due to the elevated interest by consumers [cf. 105].

  82. 82.

    cf., e.g., [107, 108–111]. See also Sect. 4.3.5 for a short excursus on Cosmeceuticals.

  83. 83.

    However, market size and growth rates are reasonably disputed. A different estimate by Frost and Sullivan sees the market in 2007 at €420 million, growing at 20 % per year [cf. 114, 115]. According to [1], Leatherhead Food Research even forecasted a 10 % decline in the UK cholesterol-lowering spread market in 2009 after an allegedly similar development in 2008, despite overall growth in the FF market. His line of reasoning is built on the existence of contradictory messages from governments, companies, medical authorities, and the media as well as several competing products, like spreads with polyunsaturated or omega-3 fatty acids. Two further estimates see the global market for end-products containing sterol-based esters at €500 million in 2005 and the global market for phytosterol-based end products at US$ 805 million (US$ 600 million for Europe, US$ 130 million for Japan and US$ 75 million for the USA) [cf. 99, 116].

  84. 84.

    Schaffnit-Chatterjee estimates the global market size for processed foods (constituting about 75 % of total world food sales) in 2009 to have reached US$ 3 trillion [120, p. 13].

  85. 85.

    The quotation is by Pam Stauffer, global communication manager at Cargill Health, and Food Technologies [cf. 124].

  86. 86.

    PLM is used to distinguish this monitoring for signals of unexpected health effects from post-marketing surveillance (PMS), a much more rigorous system used in the pharmaceutical industry [cf. 128, p. 1214].

  87. 87.

    For a thorough assessment of consumer demographics and rationale see also [100, pp. 18ff.].

  88. 88.

    It is not the aim of this study to provide a comprehensive assessment of regulatory aspects of the NFF sector. Instead, this section is intended to provide a brief introduction to the importance of national and international regulation and its importance in the development of markets for NFF. For deeper insights into regulatory aspects see, e.g., [2, pp. 147ff.; 36, pp. 115ff.; 51, pp. 55f.; 133, pp. 1ff.; 134, pp. 9ff.].

  89. 89.

    The Codex Alimentarius and its standards, guidelines, and related texts have been compiled by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, created jointly by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO) in 1963. Its main targets are “protecting health of the consumers and ensuring fair trade practices in the food trade, and promoting coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organizations” [cf. 135].

  90. 90.

    While EU regulations are applied in all Member States without the necessity for any further implementation, directives are only setting objectives to be achieved by means deemed sensible by the respective Member State. Both are commonly adjusted by amendments or corrections.

  91. 91.

    (EC) 258/97, Article 1(2.).

  92. 92.

    Phytostanol esters as one example for a novel food already on the market have been discussed in the preceding chapter.

  93. 93.

    (EC) 1924/2006, Article 3.

  94. 94.

    cf. (EC) 1924/2006, Article 2(2.).

  95. 95.

    Dureja et al. also provide a brief overview of common cosmeceutical contents. A further overview of types of cosmeceutical agents can be found in, e.g., [143, 144].

  96. 96.

    See, e.g., Crompton 139 who also cites Nicholas Perricone, founder of NV Perricone MD Cosmeceuticals, opposing accusations of Cosmeceuticals’ low credibility: “Cosmeceuticals are science-based rather than marketing-driven, giving the customer results and value for their investment”.

  97. 97.

    This document constitutes the consolidated version of the original Council Directive 76/768/EEC and all its amendments and corrections up to mid2008 See also [142, p. 1148].

  98. 98.

    Ref. [146]. While this advertisement is for one specific product, most other advertisements will sound similar, irrespective of company or country.

  99. 99.

    [cf. 151]. For a more thorough description of the regulation system in the USA see also [140].

  100. 100.

    For an overview of the personal care industry and the most important companies see, e.g., [154].

  101. 101.

    A different estimate by Kline is US$ 57 billion globally in 2008, with Europe, the USA and Japan accounting for 35, 18 and 11 %, respectively [cf. 155].

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  1. Fresenius Medical Care AG & Co. KGaA, Else-Kröner-Straße 1, 61352, Bad Homburg, Germany

    Clive-Steven Curran

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Curran, CS. (2013). Conceptual Framework and Research Design. In: The Anticipation of Converging Industries. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-5170-8_4

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