Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) is a functional imaging modality where image contrast is generated by exploiting the biochemical activity of the lesion of interest. The technique is widely used in the clinic, mainly for staging of cancerous lesions and monitoring their response to therapy. This chapter discusses recent research and engineering efforts aimed at improving images obtained with clinical PET cameras. We want to provide the reader with an overview of novel techniques that potentially will make it into clinical PET systems. After introducing PET and the current state-of-the-art commercially available clinical systems, we will discuss characteristics of current and novel scintillating materials and introduce improvements in spatial resolution through depth-of-interaction measurements and novel optical photon extraction methods. Next will be a discussion of various photodetectors: we present photomultiplier tubes, the current clinical workhorse in PET, as well as silicon-based solid-state photodetectors: avalanche photodiodes (APDs) and silicon photomultipliers (Si-PMs). We also briefly discuss semiconductor detectors that do not require photodetectors. Improved time resolution and its consequences for time-of-flight (TOF) imaging is the next topic of focus. Accurate TOF information significantly improves image SNR. Furthermore, we present the challenges involved in combining PET with MR systems and improvements in image reconstruction speed using GPUs.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Better resolution only leads to better contrast if the size of structures are on the order of the resolution.
References
Levin CS, Hoffman EJ (1999) Calculation of positron range and its effect on the fundamental limit of positron emission tomography system spatial resolution. Phys Med Biol 44:781–799
Shibuya K, Yoshida E, Nishikido F, Suzuki T, Tsuda T, Inadama N, Yamaya T, Murayama H (2007) Annihilation photon acollinearity in PET: volunteer and phantom FDG studies. Phys Med Biol 52:5249–5261
Delbeke D, Schöder H, Martin WH, Wahl RL (2009) Hybrid imaging (SPECT/CT and PET/CT): improving therapeutic decisions. Semin Nucl Med 39:308–340
von Schulthess GK, Steinert HC, Hany TF (2006) Integrated PET/CT: current applications and future directions. Radiology 238:405–422
IMV Medical Information Division (2012) 2012 PET Imaging market summary report. Technical Report
Hanahan D, Weinberg RA (2011) Hallmarks of Cancer: the next generation. Cell 144:646–674
Valenta I, Schindler TH (2012) Rb PET/CT: entering a new area of myocardial perfusion imaging? Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 39:1231–1232
Landau SM, Breault C, Joshi AD, Pontecorvo M, Mathis CA, Jagust WJ, Mintun MA, and Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (2013) Amyloid-β imaging with Pittsburgh compound B and florbetapir: comparing radiotracers and quantification methods. J Nucl Med 54:70–77
Chen K, Chen X (2011) Positron emission tomography imaging of cancer biology: current status and future prospects. Semin Oncol 38:70–86
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (2013) NEMA NU 2-2012
Siemens Medical (2006) TruePoint PET/CT technology. pp 1–16
Philips Healthcare (2011) Time-of-Flight technology within your reach. pp 1–4
Imaging Technology News (2013), PET/CT system comparison charts. http://www.itnonline.com/comparison-charts
Payne SA, Moses WW, Sheets S, Ahle L, Cherepy NJ et al (2011) Nonproportionality of scintillator detectors: theory and experiment. II. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci 58:3392–3402
Wiener R, Kaul M, Surti S (2010) Signal analysis for improved timing resolution with scintillation detectors for TOF PET imaging. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec. pp 1991–1995
Yang K, Melcher CL, Koschan M, Zhuravleva M (2011) Effect of Ca co-doping on the luminescence centers in LSO: Ce single crystals. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 58:1394–1399
Yanagida T, Yoshikawa A, Yokota Y, Kamada K, Usuki Y, Yamamoto S, Miyake M, Baba M et al (2010) Development of Pr: LuAG scintillator array and assembly for positron emission mammography. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 57:1492–1495
Chewpraditkul W, Swiderski L, Moszynski M, Szczesniak T, Syntfeld-Kazuch A, Wanarak C, Limsuwan P (2009) Scintillation properties of LuAG:Ce, YAG:Ce and LYSO:Ce crystals for gamma-ray detection. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 56:3800–3805
Conti M, Eriksson L, Rothfuss H, Melcher CL (2009) Comparison of fast scintillators with TOF PET potential. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 56:926–933
Kamada K, Yanagida T, Tsutsumi K, Usuki Y, Sato M, Ogino H, Novoselov A, Yoshikawa A et al (2009) Scintillation properties of 2-inch-diameter rm Pr: Lu2Al5O12(LuAG) single crystal. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 56:570–573
Balcerzyk M, Moszynski M, Kapusta M, Wolski D, Pawelke J, Melcher CL (2000) YSO, LSO, CSO and LGSO. A study of energy resolution and nonproportionality. Nucl Sci 47:1319–1323
Swiderski L, Moszynski M, Nassalski A, Syntfeld-Kazuch A, Szczesniak T, Kamada K, Tsutsumi K, Usuki Y et al (2009) Scintillation properties of praseodymium doped LuAG scintillator compared to cerium doped LuAG, LSO and LaBr. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 56:2499–2505
Balcerzyk M, Galazka Z, Kapusta M, Syntfeld A, Lefaucheur JL (2004) Perspectives for high resolution and high light output LuAP:Ce crystals. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec 2:986–992
Auffray E, Abler D, Brunner S, Frisch B, Knapitsch A, Lecoq P, Mavromanolakis G, Poppe O et al (2009) LuAG material for dual readout calorimetry at future high energy physics accelerators. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 2245–2249
van Loef EV, Higgins WM, Glodo J, Churilov AV, Shah KS (2008) Crystal growth and characterization of rare earth iodides for scintillation detection. J Cryst Growth 310:2090–2093
Ito M, Hong SJ, Lee JS (2011) Positron emission tomography (PET) detectors with depth-of-interaction (DOI) capability. Biomed Eng Lett 1:70–81
Costa E, Massaro E, Piro L (1986) A BGO-CsI(Tl) phoswich: a new detector for X- and γ-ray astronomy. Nucl Instr Meth A 243:572–577
Mosset J-B, Devroede O, Krieguer M, Rey M, Vieira JM, Jung JH, Kuntner C, Streun M et al (2006) Development of an optimized LSO/LuYAP phoswich detector head for the Lausanne ClearPET demonstrator. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 53:25–29
Jung JH, Choi Y, Chung YH, Devroede O, Krieguer M, Bruyndonckx P, Tavernier S (2007) Optimization of LSO/LuYAP phoswich detector for small animal PET. Nucl Instr Meth A 571:669–675
Vaquero J, Sanchez J, Lage E (2011) Design of DOl PET detector modules using phoswich and SiPMs: first results. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec. pp 3311–3313
Fontaine R, Bélanger F, Viscogliosi N (2009) The hardware and signal processing architecture of LabPET™, a small animal APD-based digital PET scanner. Nucl Sci 56:3–9
Du H, Yang Y, Glodo J, Wu Y, Shah K, Cherry SR (2009) Continuous depth-of-interaction encoding using phosphor-coated scintillators. Phys Med Biol 54:1757–1771
Roncali E, Phipps J, Marcu L (2012) Pulse shape discrimination and classification methods for continuous depth of interaction encoding PET detectors. Phys Med Biol 57:6571–6585
Liu H, Omura T, Watanabe M, Yamashita T (2001) Development of a depth of interaction detector for γ-rays. Nucl Instr Meth A 459:182–190
Zhang N, Thompson CJ, Togane D, Cayouette F, Nguyen KQ (2002) Anode position and last dynode timing circuits for dual-layer BGO scintillator with PS-PMT based modular PET detectors. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 49:2203–2207
Ito M, Lee JS, Kwon SI, Lee GS, Hong B, Lee KS, Sim K-S, Lee SJ et al (2010) A four-layer DOI detector with a relative offset for use in an animal PET system. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 57:976–981
Tsuda T, Murayama H, Kitamura K, Yamaya T, Yoshida E, Omura T, Kawai H, Inadama N et al (2004) A four-Layer depth of interaction detector block for small animal PET. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 51:2537–2542
Inadama N, Murayama H, Hamamoto M, Tsuda T, Ono Y, Yamaya T, Yoshida E, Shibuya K et al (2006) 8-Layer DOI encoding of 3-dimensional crystal array. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 53:2523–2528
Shimizu K, Ohmura T, Watanabe M, Uchida H, Yamashita T (1988) Development of 3-D detector system for positron CT. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 35:717–720
Abreu M, Aguiar J, Almeida F, Almeida P, Bento P, Carrico B, Ferreira M, Ferreira N et al (2006) Design and evaluation of the Clear-PEM scanner for positron emission mammography. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 53:71–77
James SS, Yang Y, Wu Y, Farrell R, Dokhale P, Shah KS, Cherry SR (2009) Experimental characterization and system simulations of depth of interaction PET detectors using 0.5 mm and 0.7 mm LSO arrays. Phys Med Biol 54:4605–4619
Beltrame P, Bolle E, Braem A, Casella C, Chesi E, Clinthorne N, Cochran E, De Leo R et al (2011) Construction and tests of demonstrator modules for a 3-D axial PET system for brain or small animal imaging. Nucl Instr Meth A 636:S226–S230
Bolle E, Rissi M, Bjaalie JG, Buskenes JI, Dorholt O, Røhne O, Skretting A, Stapnes S (2011) COMPET—high resolution and high sensitivity PET scanner with novel readout concept: setup and simulations. Nucl Instr Meth A 648:S93–S95
Yamaya T, Mitsuhashi T, Matsumoto T, Inadama N, Nishikido F, Yoshida E, Murayama H, Kawai H et al (2011) A SiPM-based isotropic-3D PET detector X’tal cube with a three-dimensional array of 1 mm3 crystals. Phys Med Biol 56:6793–6807
Yoshida E, Tashima H, Inadama N, Nishikido F, Moriya T, Omura T, Watanabe M, Murayama H et al (2012) Intrinsic spatial resolution evaluation of the X’tal cube PET detector based on a 3D crystal block segmented by laser processing. Radiol Phys Technol 6:21–27
Levin CS (2002) Design of a high-resolution and high-sensitivity scintillation crystal array for PET with nearly complete light collection. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 49:2236–2243
Vandenbroucke A, Foudray AMK, Olcott PD, Levin CS (2010) Performance characterization of a new high resolution PET scintillation detector. Phys Med Biol 55:5895–5911
Zhang J, Foudray A, Olcott P, Farrell R, Shah K, Levin C (2007) Performance characterization of a novel thin position-sensitive avalanche photodiode for 1 mm resolution positron emission tomography. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 54:415–421
Vandenbroucke A, Lau FWY, Reynolds PD, Levin CS (2011) Measuring 511 keV photon interaction locations in three dimensional position sensitive scintillation detectors. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec 2011:1–4
Lau FWY, Fang C, Reynolds PD, Olcott PD, Vandenbroucke A, Spanoudaki VC, Olutade F, Horowitz MA et al (2008) 1 mm3 resolution breast-dedicated PET system. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 5619–5622
Ling T, Lewellen TK, Miyaoka RS (2007) Depth of interaction decoding of a continuous crystal detector module. Phys Med Biol 52:2213–2228
Bruyndonckx P, Lematre C, Schaart D, Maas M (2007) Towards a continuous crystal APD-based PET detector design. Nucl Instr Meth NIM A 571:182–186
van der Laan DJJ, Maas MC, Bruyndonckx P, Schaart DR (2012) Limits on the spatial resolution of monolithic scintillators read out by APD arrays. Phys Med Biol 57:6479–6496
Ross S, Stearns C (2010) SharpIR, white paper. GE Healthcare, pp 1–8
Siemens Medical (2007) TruePoint PET. pp 1–10
Cayouette F, Laurendeau D, Moisan C (2003) DETECT2000: an improved Monte-Carlo simulator for the computer aided design of photon sensing devices. In: Lessard RA, Lampropoulos GA, Schinn GW (eds) Proceedings of SPIE, pp 69–76, SPIE
Janecek M, Moses WW (2010) Simulating scintillator light collection using measured optical reflectance. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 57:964–970
Agostinelli S, Allison J, Society AC, Apostolakis J, Araujo H, Arce P, Asai M, Axen D et al (2003) Geant4—a simulation toolkit. Nucl Instr Meth A 506:250–303
Gentit F (2002) Litrani: a general purpose Monte Carlo program simulating light propagation in isotropic or anisotropic media. Nucl Instr Meth A A486:35–39
Kronberger M, Auffray E, Lecoq P (2010) Improving light extraction from heavy inorganic scintillators by photonic crystals. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 57:2475–2482
Flyckt SO, Marmonier C (2002) Photomultiplier tubes—principles and applications. Photonis, 2 edn
Iams H, Salzberg B (1935) The secondary emission phototube. Proc. IRE 23:55–64
Iijima T (2011) Status and perspectives of vacuum-based photon detectors. Nucl Instr Meth A 639:137–143
Hamamatsu (2013) Electron tube division. http://sales.hamamatsu.com/en/products/electron-tube-division/detectors/photomultiplier-tubes.php
Anger HO (1958) Scintillation camera. Rev Sci Inst 29:27–33
Pani R, Pellegrini R, Cinti MN, Mattioli M, Trotta C, Montani L, Iurlaro G, Trotta G et al (2004) Recent advances and future perspectives of position sensitive PMT. Nucl Instr Meth B 213:197–205
Olcott P, Talcott JA, Levin CS, Habte F (2005) Compact readout electronics for position sensitive photomultiplier tubes. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 52:21–27
Pani R, Cinti MN, Pellegrini R, Betti M, Bennati P, Trotta G, Del Guerra A (2005) Reduced parallel anode readout for 256 ch flat panel PMT. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec 5:2954–2958
Kyushima H, Shimoi H, Atsumi A, Ito M, Oba K, Yoshizawa YNSSCRI (2000) The development of flat panel PMT. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf. Rec. 7:3–7
Luo W, Anashkin E, Matthews CG (2008) First test results of a commercially available clinical PET scanner using the NEMA NU4-2008 small animal PET standards. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 4718–4723
Gu Z, Taschereau R, Vu NT, Wang H, Prout DL, Silverman RW, Stout DB, Phelps ME et al (2011) Design and initial performance of PETbox4, a high sensitivity preclinical imaging tomograph. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, 2328–2331
Godinez F, Chaudhari AJ, Yang Y, Farrell R, Badawi RD (2012) Characterization of a high-resolution hybrid DOI detector for a dedicated breast PET/CT scanner. Phys Med Biol 57:3435–3449
Wolff P (1954) Theory of electron multiplication in silicon and germanium. Phys Rev 95:1415–1420
Chynoweth AG (1960) Uniform silicon p–n junctions. II. Ionization rates for electrons. J Appl Phys 31:1161–1165
Baraff GA (1962) Distribution functions and ionization rates for hot electrons in semiconductors. Phys Rev 128:2507–2517
Huth G, Trice J, McKinney R (1964) Internal pulse amplification in silicon pn junction radiation detection junctions. Rev Sci Inst 35:1220–1222
McIntyre R (1966) Multiplication noise in uniform avalanche diodes. IEEE Trans Electr Dev 13:164–168
Petrillo G, McIntyre R, Lecomte R, Lamoureux G, Schmitt D (1984) Scintillation detection with large-area reach-through avalanche photodiodes. Nucl. Sci. 31:417–423
Lecomte R, Schmitt D, Lightstone A, McIntyre R (1985) Performance characteristics of BGO-silicon avalanche photodiode detectors for PET. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 32:482–486
McIntyre R, Webb P, Dautet H (1996) A short-wavelength selective reach-through avalanche photodiode. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 43:1341–1346
Lecomte R, Pepin C, Rouleau D, Saoudi A, Andreaco M, Casey M, Nutt R, Dautet H et al (2002) Investigation of GSO, LSO and YSO scintillators using reverse avalanche photodiodes. Nucl Sci 45:478–482
Huth G, Bergeson H, Trice J (1963) Stable, high field silicon pn junction radiation detectors. Rev Sci Inst 34:1283–1285
Locker R, Huth G (1966) A new ionizing radiation detection concept which employs semiconductor avalanche amplification and the tunnel diode element. Appl Phys Lett 9:227–230
Farrell R, Olschner F, Frederick E, McConchie L, Vanderpuye K, Squillante M, Entine G (1990) Large area silicon avalanche photodiodes for scintillation detectors. Nucl Instr Meth A 288:137–139
Moszyski M, Szawlowski M, Kapusta M, Balceryk M (2002) Large area avalanche photodiodes in scintillation and X-rays detection. Nucl Instr Meth A 485:504–521
Farrell R, Shah K, Vanderpuye K, Grazioso R, Myers R, Entine G (2000) APD arrays and large-area APDs via a new planar process. Nucl Instr Meth A 442:171–178
Pepin CM, Dautet H, Bergeron M, Cadorette J, Beaudoin J-F, Jacques-Bedard X, Couture M, Lecomte R (2010) New UV-enhanced, ultra-low noise silicon avalanche photodiode for radiation detection and medical imaging. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 1740–1746
Redus R, Farrell R (1996) Gain and noise in very high-gain avalanche photodiodes: theory and experiment. Proc. SPIE 2859:288–297
McElroy D, Pimpl W, Pichler B, Rafecas M, Schüler T, Ziegler SI (2005) Characterization and readout of MADPET-II detector modules: validation of a unique design concept for high resolution small animal PET. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 52:199–204
Moses WW, Derenzo SE, Budinger TF (1994) PET detector modules based on novel detector technologies. Nucl Instr Meth A 353:189–194
Levin CS, Foudray A, Olcott P, Habte F (2004) Investigation of position sensitive avalanche photodiodes for a new high-resolution PET detector design. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 51:805–810
Lightstone AW, McIntyre RJ, Lecomte R, Schmitt D (1986) A bismuth germanate-avalanche photodiode module designed for use in high resolution positron emission tomography. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 33:456–459
Lecomte R, Cadorette J, Rodrigue S, Lapointe D, Rouleau D, Bentourkia M, Yao R, Msaki P (1996) Initial results from the Sherbrooke avalanche photodiode positron tomograph. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 43:1952–1957
Fontaine R, Bélanger F, Cadorette J, Leroux JD, Martin JP, Michaud JB, Pratte J-F, Robert S et al (2005) Architecture of a dual-modality, high-resolution, fully digital positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) scanner for small animal imaging. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 52:691–696
Bergeron M, Thibaudeau C, Cadorette J, Pepin CM, Tetrault MA, Davies M, Dautet H, Deschamps P et al (2011) LabPET II, an APD-based PET detector module with counting CT imaging capability. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 3543–3547
Catana C, Wu Y, Judenhofer MS, Qi J, Cherry SR (2006) Simultaneous acquisition of multislice PET and MR images: initial results with a MR-compatible PET scanner. J Nucl Med 47:1968–1976
Judenhofer MS, Catana C, Swann BK, Siegel SB, Jung W-I, Nutt RE, Cherry SR, Claussen CD et al (2007) Is MR-guided attenuation correction a viable option for dual-modality PET/MR imaging? Radiology 244:639–642
CMS Collaboration (2010) Performance and operation of the CMS electromagnetic calorimeter. JINST 5:T03010–T03010
Spanoudaki VC, McElroy D, Torres-Espallardo I, Ziegler SI (2008) Effect of temperature on the performance of proportional APD-based modules for gamma ray detection in positron emission tomography. Nucl Sci 55:469–480
Vandenbroucke A, McLaughlin TJ, Levin CS (2012) Influence of temperature and bias voltage on the performance of a high resolution PET detector built with position sensitive avalanche photodiodes. JINST 7:P08001–P08001
Cadorette J, Rodrigue S, Lecomte R (1993) Tuning of avalanche photodiode PET camera. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 40:1062–1066
Shah K, Farrell R, Grazioso R, Harmon ES, Karplus E (2002) Position-sensitive avalanche photodiodes for gamma-ray imaging. Nucl Sci 49:1687–1692
Vandenbroucke A, Levin CS (2008) Study of scintillation crystal array parameters for an advanced PET scanner dedicated to breast cancer imaging. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 4914–4919
Lau FWY, Vandenbroucke A, Reynolds PD, Olcott PD, Horowitz MA, Levin C (2010) Analog signal multiplexing for PSAPD-based PET detectors: simulation and experimental validation. Phys Med Biol 55:7149
Renker D (2006) Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes, history, properties and problems. Nucl Instr Meth A 567:48–56
Spanoudaki VC, Levin CS (2010) Photo-detectors for time of flight positron emission tomography (ToF-PET). Sensors 10:10484–10505
Roncali E, Cherry SR (2011) Application of silicon photomultipliers to positron emission tomography. Ann Biomed Eng 39:1358–1377
Spanoudaki VC, Levin CS (2011) Scintillation induced response in passively-quenched Si-based single photon counting avalanche diode arrays. Opt Express 19:1665–1679
Britvitch I, Renker D (2006) Measurements of the recovery time of Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes. Nucl Instr Meth A 567:260–263
Oldham W, Samuelson R (1972) Triggering phenomena in avalanche diodes. IEEE Trans Electr Dev 19:1056–1060
McIntyre R (1973) On the avalanche initiation probability of avalanche diodes above the breakdown voltage. IEEE Trans Electr Dev 20:637–641
Mars P (1972) Temperature dependence of avalanche breakdown voltage temperature dependence of avalanche breakdown voltage in p–n junctions. Int J Electron 32:23–37
Mazzillo M, Abbisso S, Condorelli G, Sanfilippo D, Valvo G, Carbone B, Piana A, Fallica G et al (2011) Enhanced blue-light sensitivity P on N silicon photomultipliers. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp N12–1
Brown RGW, Jones R, Rarity JG, Ridley KD (1987) Characterization of silicon avalanche photodiodes for photon correlation measurements 2: active quenching. Appl Opt 26:2383
Cova S, Ghioni M, Lacaita A, Samori C, Zappa F (1996) Avalanche photodiodes and quenching circuits for single-photon detection. Appl Opt 35:1956–1976
Ramilli M, Allevi A, Nardo L, Bondani M, Caccia M (2012) Silicon photomultipliers: characterization and applications. Photodetector (Sanka Gateva Edt., InTech, Rijeka, Croatia), pp 77–100
Chynoweth A, McKay K (1956) Photon emission from avalanche breakdown in silicon. Phys Rev 102:369–376
Lacaita AL, Zappa F, Bigliardi S, Manfredi M (1993) On the bremsstrahlung origin of hot-carrier-induced photons in silicon devices. IEEE Trans Electr Dev 40:577–582
Buzhan P, Dolgoshein B, Ilyin A, Kaplin V, Klemin S, Mirzoyan R, Popova E, Teshima M (2009) The cross-talk problem in SiPMs and their use as light sensors for imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes. Nucl Instr Meth A 610:131–134
Frach T, Prescher G, Degenhardt C (2009) The digital silicon photomultiplier—principle of operation and intrinsic detector performance. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec
Frach T, Prescher G, Degenhardt C, Zwaans B (2010) The digital silicon photomultiplier—system architecture and performance evaluation. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 1959–1965
Ninković J, Andriček L, Liemann G, Lutz G, Moser H-G, Richter R, Schopper F (2009) SiMPl—novel high QE photosensor. Nucl Instr Meth A 610:142–144
Jendrysik C, Andriček L, Liemann G, Moser H-G, Ninković J, Richter R, Schopper F (2013) Characterization of the first prototypes of silicon photomultipliers with bulk-integrated quench resistor fabricated at MPI semiconductor laboratory. Nucl Instr Meth A 718:262–265
Berube B-L, Rheaume V-P, Corbeil-Therrien A, Boisvert A, Carini G, Charlebois S, Fontaine R, Pratte J-F (2012) Development of a single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array in high voltage CMOS 0.8 um dedicated to a 3D integrated circuit (3DIC). IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 1835–1839
McClish M, Dokhale P, Christian J, Johnson E, Stapels C, Robertson R, Shah KS (2010) Characterization of CMOS position sensitive solid-state photomultipliers. Nucl Instr Meth A 624:492–497
McClish M, Dokhale P, Christian J (2011) Performance measurements from LYSO scintillators coupled to a CMOS position sensitive SSPM detector. Nucl Instr Meth A 652:264–267
Fischer P, Piemonte C (2013) Interpolating silicon photomultipliers. Nucl Instr Meth A 718:320–322
Olcott P, Chinn G, Levin CS (2011) Compressed sensing for the multiplexing of PET detectors. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 3224–3226
Chinn G, Olcott PD, Levin CS (2010) Improving SNR with a maximum likelihood compressed sensing decoder for multiplexed PET detectors. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 3353–3356
Chinn G, Olcott PD, Levin CS (2012) Improved compressed sensing multiplexing PET readout. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 2472–2474
Hong J, Bellm EC, Grindlay JE, Narita T (2003) Cathode depth sensing in CZT detectors. arXiv preprint astro-ph/0310475
Gu Y, Matteson J, Skelton R, Deal A, Stephan E, Duttweiler F, Gasaway T, Levin C (2011) Study of a high-resolution, 3D positioning cadmium zinc telluride detector for PET. Phys Med Biol 56:1563
Morimoto Y, Ueno Y, Kojima S, Takeuchi W, Ishitsu T, Matsuzaki K, Umegaki K, Kubo N et al (2010) Development of a prototype 3D PET scanner using semiconductor detectors and depth of interaction information. Mol Imaging Integr Med Ther Drug Dev, pp 30–41, Springer
Mitchell G, Sinha S, Stickel JR, Bowen S, Cirignano L, Dokhale P, Kim H, Shah KS et al (2008) CdTe strip detector characterization for high resolution small animal PET. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 55:870–876
Vaska P, Bolotnikov A, Carini G, Camarda G, Pratte J-F, Dilmanian FA, Park SJ, James RB (2005) Studies of CZT for PET Applications. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec 5:2799–2802
Pratx G, Levin CS (2009) Bayesian reconstruction of photon interaction sequences for high-resolution PET detectors. Phys Med Biol 54:5073
Surti S, Karp JS (2008) Experimental evaluation of a simple lesion detection task with time-of-flight PET. Phys Med Biol 54:373–384
Karp JS, Surti S, Daube-Witherspoon ME, Muehllehner G (2008) Benefit of time-of-flight in PET: experimental and clinical results. J Nucl Med 49:462–470
Lecoq P (2012) New approaches to improve timing resolution in scintillators. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 59:2313–2318
Lynch FJ (1966) Improved timing with NaI(Tl). IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 13:140–147
Powolny F (2009) Characterization of time resolved photodetector systems for positron emission tomography. Ph.D. thesis, Université de Neuchâtel
Schaart DR, Seifert S, Vinke R (2010) LaBr3:Ce and SiPMs for time-of-flight PET: achieving 100 ps coincidence resolving time. Phys Med Biol 55:N179–N189
Daube-Witherspoon ME, Surti S, Perkins A, Kyba CCM, Wiener R, Werner ME, Kulp R, Karp JS (2009) The imaging performance of a LaBr 3-based PET scanner. Phys Med Biol 55:45–64
Spanoudaki VC, Levin CS (2010) Investigating the temporal resolution limits of scintillation detection from pixellated elements: comparison between experiment and simulation. Phys Med Biol 56:735–756
Derenzo SE, Weber MJ, Moses WW, Dujardin C (2000) Measurements of the intrinsic rise times of common inorganic scintillators. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 47:860–864
Seifert S, Steenbergen J, van Dam H, Schaart DR (2012) Accurate measurement of the rise and decay times of fast scintillators with solid state photon counters. JINST 7:P09004
Shao Y (2007) A new timing model for calculating the intrinsic timing resolution of a scintillator detector. Phys Med Biol 52:1103
Lecoq P, Auffray E, Brunner S, Hillemanns H, Jarron P, Knapitsch A, Meyer T, Powolny F (2010) Factors influencing time resolution of scintillators and ways to improve them. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 57:2411–2416
Moses WW, Derenzo SE (1999) Prospects for time-of-flight PET using LSO scintillator. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 46:474–478
Seifert S, van Dam H, Huizenga J, Vinke R, Dendooven P, Löhner H, Schaart DR (2012) Monolithic LaBr3: Ce crystals on silicon photomultiplier arrays for time-of-flight positron emission tomography. Phys Med Biol 57:2219
Levin C (2008) New imaging technologies to enhance the molecular sensitivity of positron emission tomography. Proc IEEE 96:439–467
Spieler H (1982) Fast timing methods for semiconductor detectors. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 29:1142–1158
Lecomte R, Pepin C, Rouleau D, Dautet H, McIntyre R, McSween D, Webb P (1999) Radiation detection measurements with a new “Buried Juncion” silicon avalanche photodiode. Nucl Instr Meth A 423:92–102
Fishburn MW, Charbon E (2010) System tradeoffs in gamma-ray detection utilizing SPAD arrays and scintillators. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 57:2549–2557
Seifert S, van Dam HT, Schaart DR (2012) The lower bound on the timing resolution of scintillation detectors. Phys Med Biol 57:1797–1814
Dorenbos P (2010) Fundamental limitations in the performance of Ce3+, Pr3+, and Eu2+ activated scintillators. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 57:1162–1167
Derenzo SE, Weber MJ, Klintenberg MK (2002) Temperature dependence of the fast, near-band-edge scintillation from CuI, HgI2, PbI2, ZnO:Ga and CdS:In. Nucl Instr Meth A 486:214–219
Bourret-Courchesne ED, Derenzo SE, Weber MJ (2009) Development of ZnO:Ga as an ultra-fast scintillator. Nucl Instr Meth A 601:358–363
Korpar S, Dolenec R, Križan P, Pestotnik R, Stanovnik A (2011) Study of TOF PET using cherenkov light. Nucl Instr Meth A 654:532–538
Pichler BJ, Judenhofer MS, Wehrl HF (2008) PET/MRI hybrid imaging: devices and initial results. Eur Radiol 18:1077–1086
Judenhofer MS, Wehrl HF, Newport DF, Catana C, Siegel SB, Becker M, Thielscher A, Kneilling M et al (2008) Simultaneous PET-MRI: a new approach for functional and morphological imaging. Nat Med 14:459–465
Cherry SR, Louie AY, Jacobs RE (2008) The integration of positron emission tomography with magnetic resonance imaging. Proc IEEE 96:416–438
Judenhofer MS, Cherry SR (2013) Applications for preclinical PET/MRI. Semin Nucl Med 43:19–29
Li G, Xie H, Ning H, Capala J, Arora BC, Coleman CN, Camphausen K, Miller RW (2005) A novel 3D volumetric voxel registration technique for volume-view-guided image registration of multiple imaging modalities. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 63:261–273
Vaska P, Cao T (2013) The state of instrumentation for combined positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Semin Nucl Med 43:11–18
Hofmann M, Pichler B, Schölkopf B, Beyer T (2008) Towards quantitative PET/MRI: a review of MR-based attenuation correction techniques. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 36:93–104
Wagenknecht G, Kops ER, Mantlik F, Fried E, Pilz T (2011) Attenuation correction in MR-BrainPET with segmented T1-weighted MR images of the patient’s head—a comparative study with CT. IEEE NSS-MIC Conf Rec, pp 2261–2266
Deans SR (2007) The radon transform and some of its applications. Courier Dover Publications
Pratx G, Xing L (2011) GPU computing in medical physics: a review. Med Phys 38:2685–2697
Cabral B, Cam N, Foran J (1994) Accelerated volume rendering and tomographic reconstruction using texture mapping hardware. In: Proceedings of the volume visualization, New York, USA. ACM Press, pp 91–98
Pratx G, Chinn G, Olcott P, Levin CS (2009) Fast, accurate and shift-varying line projections for iterative reconstruction using the GPU. IEEE Trans Med Imag 28:435–445
Cui J, Pratx G, Prevrhal S, Levin CS (2011) Fully 3D list-mode time-of-flight PET image reconstruction on GPUs using CUDA. Med Phys 38:6775–6786
Chinn G, Levin CS (2011) A maximum NEC criterion for compton collimation to accurately identify true coincidences in PET. IEEE Trans Med Imag 30:1341–1352
Oliver JF, Rafecas M (2010) Improving the singles rate method for modeling accidental coincidences in high-resolution PET. Phys Med Biol 55:6951–6971
Grotus N, Reader AJ, Stute S, Rosenwald JC, Giraud P, Buvat I (2009) Fully 4D list-mode reconstruction applied to respiratory-gated PET scans. Phys Med Biol 54:1705–1721
Lin F, Qi J (2010) A residual correction method for high-resolution PET reconstruction with application to on-the-fly Monte Carlo based model of positron range. Med Phys 37:704
Reader AJ, Zaidi H (2007) Advances in PET image reconstruction. PET Clin 2:173–190
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Virginia Spanoudaki, David Hsu, and David Freese for discussions regarding this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer-Verlag London
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Vandenbroucke, A., Levin, C.S. (2014). Engineering the Next-Generation PET Detectors. In: Cai, W. (eds) Engineering in Translational Medicine. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-4372-7_28
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-4372-7_28
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-4371-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-4372-7
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)