Abstract
Coronary angiography is the backbone of clinical coronary artery clinical care. The technical aspects of the procedure include a thorough clinical history and examination prior to angiography and knowledge of both the variations of coronary anatomy and equipment and drugs needed to carry out the procedure. Analysis of the angiogram should be based on an understanding of coronary physiology, and how the structure and function are altered by a variety of disease states. In this chapter, I outline the methods for quantitatively assessing the coronary angiogram, as well as how atherosclerosis affects coronary dimensions and the angiographic hallmarks of acute coronary syndromes. In addition, the angiographic findings in less common, but important non-atherosclerotic coronary syndromes are discussed.
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References
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Knoebel SB, McHenry PL, Phillips JF, Pauletto FJ. Coronary collateral circulation and myocardial blood flow reserve. Circulation. 1972;46:84–94.
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Fulton WFM. Arterial anastomoses in the coronary circulation. II. Distribution, enumeration and measurement of coronary arterial anastomoses in health and disease. Scott Med J. 1963;8:466–74.
Fulton WF. The coronary arteries. Springfield: Thomas; 1965.
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Franklin D, McKnown D, McKnown M, et al. Development and regression of coronary collaterals induced by repeated, reversible ischemia in dogs. Fed Proc. 1981;40:339 (abstr).
Yamamoto H, Tomoike H, Shimokawa H, Nabeyama S, Nakamura M. Development of collateral function with repetitive coronary occlusion in a canine model reduces myocardial reactive hyperemia in the absence of significant coronary stenosis. Circ Res. 1984;55:623–32.
Harrison DG, Sellke FW, Quillen JE. Neurohumoral regulation of coronary collateral vasomotor tone. Basic Res Cardiol. 1990;85 Suppl 1:121–9.
Bache RJ, Foreman B, Hautamaa PV. Response of canine coronary collateral vessels to ergonovine and a-adrenergic stimulation. Am J Physiol. 1991;261(Heart Circ Physiol 30):H1019–25.
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Helfant RH, Vokonas PS, Gorlin R. Functional importance of the human coronary collateral circulation. N Engl J Med. 1971;284:1277–81.
Gorlin R. Chapter 4. Coronary collaterals. In: Coronary artery disease. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1976.
Sasayama S, Fujita M. Recent insights into coronary collateral circulation. Circulation. 1992;85:1197–204.
Rentrop KP, Thorton JC, Feit F, Buskirk MV. Determinants and protective potential as assessed by an angioplasty model of coronary arterial collaterals. Am J Cardiol. 1988;61:677–84.
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Schaper W. Residual perfusion of acutely ischemic heart muscle. Amsterdam: Elsevier Biomedical; 1979. p. 345.
Coronary Vasospasm
Ginsburg R, Schroeder JS. Coronary spasm producing coronary thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1983;309:648.
Oliva PB, Potts DE, Pluss RG. Coronary arterial spasm in prinzmetal angina. N Engl J Med. 1973;288:745–51.
Maseri A, Chierchia S. Coronary artery spasm: demonstration, definition, diagnosis, and consequences. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1982;25:169–92.
Schroeder JS, Bolen JL, Quint RA, Clark DA, Hayden WG, Higgins CB, Wexler L. Provocation of coronary spasm with ergonovine maleate. Am J Cardiol. 1977;40:487–91.
Heupler FA, Proudfit WL, Razavi M, Shirey EK, Greenstreet R, Sheldon WC. Ergonovine maleate provocative test for coronary arterial spasm. Am J Cardiol. 1978;41:631–40.
Curry RC, Pepine CJ, Sabom MB, Feldman RL, Christie LG, Conti CR. Effects of ergonovine in patients with and without coronary artery disease. Circulation. 1977;56:804–9.
Chahine RA, Raizner AE, Ishimori T, Luchi RJ, McIntosh HD. The incidence and clinical implications of coronary artery spasm. Circulation. 1975;52:972–8.
Curry RC, Pepine CJ, Sabom MB, Feldman RL, Christie LG, Varnell JH, Conti CR. Hemodynamic and myocardial metabolic effects of ergonovine in patients with chest pain. Circulation. 1978;58:648–54.
Rall TW. Oxytocin, prostaglandins, ergot alkaloids, and other drugs; tocolytic agents. In: Gilman G, Goodman LS, Rall TW, Murad F, editors. The pharmacological basis of therapeutics. New York: Macmillan; 1985. p. 936–40.
Kugiyama K, Ohgushi M, Motoyama T, Sugiyama S, Soejima H, Matsumura T, Yoshimura M, Ogawa H, Yasue H. Enhancement of constrictor response of spastic coronary arteries to acetylcholine but not to phenylephrine in patients with coronary spastic angina. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1999;33:414–9.
Feldman RL, Curry RC, Pepine CJ, Mehta J, Conti CR. Regional coronary hemodynamic effects of ergonovine in patients with and without variant angina. Circulation. 1980;62:149–59.
Okumura K, Yasue H, Matsuyama K, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of intracoronary injection of acetylcholine for the induction of coronary artery spasm. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;12:883–8.
Cipriano PR, Guthaner DF, Orlick AE, Ricci DR, Wexler L, Silverman JF. The effects of ergonovine maleate on coronary arterial size. Circulation. 1979;59:82–9.
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Kodama K, Yamagishi M, Nanto S, Kuzuya T, Koretsune Y, Tamai J, Tada M, Inoue M. Comparison of coronary hemodynamic and cardiac metabolic alterations during coronary artery spasm associated with ST segment elevation or depression. Jpn Circ J. 1985;49:422–31.
Whittle JL, Feldman RL, Pepine CJ, Curry RC, Conti CR. Variability of electrocardiographic responses to repeated ergonovine provocation in variant angina patients with coronary artery spasm. Am Heart J. 1982;103:161–7.
Matsuda Y, Ogawa H, Moritani K, Matsuda M, Katayama K, Fuji T, Kohno M, Miura T, Kohtoku S, Kusukawa R. Transient appearance of collaterals during vasospastic occlusion in patients without obstructive coronary atherosclerosis. Am Heart J. 1985;109:759–63.
Takeshita A, Koiwaya Y, Nakamura M, Yamamoto K, Torii S. Immediate appearance of coronary collaterals during ergonovine-induced arterial spasm. Chest. 1982;82:319–22.
Hom GA, Brent BN. Coronary artery vasospasm during treatment with intravenous nitroglycerin. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1985;11:423–6.
Kurnik PB, Spadaro JJ, Nordlicht SM, Tiefenbrunn AJ, Ludbrook PA. Prolonged coronary vasoconstrictor effect of ergonovine maleate. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1984;10:353–61.
Mantyla R, Kanto J. Clinical pharmacokinetics of methylergometrine (methylergonovine). Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol. 1981;19:386–91.
Harding MB, Leithe ME, Mark DB, Nelson CL, Harrison JK, Hermiller JB, Davidson CJ, Pryor DB, Bashore TM. Ergonovine maleate testing during cardiac catheterzation: a 10-year perspective in 3, 447 patients without significant coronary artery disease or prinzmetal’s variant angina. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;20:107–11.
Bertrand ME, LaBlanche JM, Tilmant PY, Thieuleux FA, Delforge MR, Carre AG, Asseman P, Berzin B, Libersa C, Laurent JM. Frequency of provoked coronary arterial spasm in 1089 consecutive patients undergoing coronary arteriography. Circulation. 1982;65:1299–308.
Ogasawara K, Aizawa T, Nishimura K, Satoh H, Fujii J, Katoh K. Beta-thromboglobulin release within coronary circulation – a potential role of platelets in ergonovine-induced coronary vasospasm. Int J Cardiol. 1986;10:15–22.
Yui Y, Hattori R, Takatsu Y, Kawai C. Selective thromboxane A2 synthetase inhibition in vasospastic angina pectoris. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1986;7:25–9.
Maleki M, Manley JC. Venospastic phenomena of saphenous vein bypass grafts: possible causes for unexplained postoperative recurrence of angina or early or late occlusion of vein bypass grafts. Br Heart J. 1989;62:57–60.
Hosio A, Kotake H, Mashiba H. Significance of coronary artery tone in patients with vasospastic angina. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1989;14:604–9.
Hill JA, Feldman RL, Pepine CJ, Conti CR. Regional coronary artery dilation response in variant angina. Am Heart J. 1982;104:226–33.
Kaski JC, Maseri A, Vejar M, Crea F, Hackett D. Spontaneous coronary artery spasm in variant angina is caused by a local hyperreactivity to a generalized constrictor stimulus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1989;14:1456–63.
Feldman RL, Pepine CJ, Whittle JL, Curry RC, Conti CR. Coronary hemodynamic findings during spontaneous angina in patients with variant angina. Circulation. 1981;64:76–83.
Bentivoglio LG, Leo LR, Wolf NM, Meister SG. Frequency and importance of unprovoked coronary spasm in patients with angina pectoris undergoing percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. Am J Cardiol. 1983;51:1067–71.
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Egashira K, Kikuchi Y, Sagara T, Sugihara M, Nakamura M. Long-term prognosis of vasospastic angina without significant atherosclerotic coronary artery disease. Jpn Heart J. 1987;28:841–9.
Nobuyoshi M, Tanaka M, Nosaka H, Kimura T, Yokoi H, Hamasaki N, Kim N, Shindo T, Kimura K. Progression of coronary atherosclerosis: is coronary spasm related to progression? J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;18:904–10.
Caralis DG, Deligonul U, Kern MJ, Cohen JD. Smoking is a risk factor for coronary spasm in young women. Circulation. 1992;85:905–9.
Suzuki Y, Tokunaga S, Ikeguchi S, Miki S, Iwase T, Tomita T, Murakami T, Kawai C. Induction of coronary artery spasm by intracoronary acetylcholine: comparison with intracoronary ergonovine. Am Heart J. 1992;124:39–47.
Wright CM, Engler R, Maisel A. Coronary thrombosis precipitated by hyperventilation-induced vasospasm. Am Heart J. 1988;116:867–9.
Ginsburg R, Bristow MR, Kantrowitz N, Baim DS, Harrison DC. Histamine provocation of clinical coronary artery spasm: implications concerning pathogenesis of variant angina pectoris. Am Heart J. 1981;102:819–22.
Spontaneous Coronary Dissection
DeMaio S, Kinsella SH, Silverman ME. Clinical course and long-term prognosis of spontaneous coronary artery dissection. Am J Cardiol. 1989;64:471–4.
Bulkley BH, Roberts WC. Dissecting aneurysm (hematoma) limited to coronary artery. Am J Med. 1973;55:747–56.
Mathieu D, Larde D, Vasile N. Primary dissecting aneurysms of the coronary arteries: case report and literature review. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 1984;7:71–4.
Claudon DG, Claudon DB, Edwards JE. Primary dissecting aneurysm of coronary artery. Circulation. 1972;45:259–66.
Brody GL, Burton JF, Zawadzki ES, French AJ. Dissecting aneurysms of the coronary artery. N Engl J Med. 1965;273:1–5.
Yeoh J, Choo H, Soo C, Lim Y, Yan C. Spontaneous coronary artery dissection in a young man with anterior myocardial infarction. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1991;24:186–8.
Heilbrunn A, Zimmerman JM. Coronary artery dissection: a complication of cannulation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1965;49:767.
Roy P, Finci L, Bopp P, Meier B. Emergency balloon angioplasty and digital subtraction angiography in the management of an acute iatrogenic occlusive dissection of a saphenous vein graft. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1989;16:176–9.
Thayer JO, Healy RW, Maggs PR. Spontaneous coronary artery dissection. Ann Thorac Surg. 1987;44:97–102.
Orbe LC, Gallego FG, Sobrino N, Sotillo J, Lopez-Sendon JL, Oliver J, Coma I, Frutos A, Sobrino JA, Navarro JM. Acute myocardial infarction after blunt chest trauma in young people. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1991;24:182–5.
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Robinowitz M, Virmani R, McAllister H. Spontaneous coronary artery dissection and eosinophilic inflammation: a cause and effect relationship? Am J Med. 1982;72:923–7.
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Nishikawa H, Nakanishi S, Nishiyama S, Nishimura S, Seki A, Yamaguchi H. Primary coronary artery dissection observed at coronary angiography. Am J Cardiol. 1988;61:628–45.
Alvarez J, Deal CW. Spontaneous dissection of the left main coronary artery: case report and review of the literature. Aust N Z J Med. 1991;21:891–2.
Himbert D, Makowski S, Laperche T, Steg G, Juliard J, Gourgon R. Left main coronary spontaneous dissection: progressive angiographic healing without coronary surgery. Am Heart J. 1991;22:747–56.
Behnam R, Tillinghast S. Thrombolytic therapy in spontaneous coronary artery dissection. Clin Cardiol. 1991;14:611–4.
Vale PR, Baron DW. Coronary stenting for spontaneous coronary dissection: a case report and review of the literature. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1998;45:280–6.
Myocardial Infarction with Normal Coronary Arteries
Betrriu A, Pare JC, Sanz GA, Casals F, Magarina J, Castaner A, Narvarro-Lopez F. Myocardial infarction in normal coronary arteries: a prospective clinical-angiographic study. Am J Cardiol. 1981;48:28–38.
Rigatelli G, Rigatelli G, Rossi P, Docali G. Normal angiogram in acute coronary syndromes: the underestimated role of alternative substrates of myocardial ischemia. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2004;20:471–5.
Thompson SI, Vieweg WVR, Alpert JS, Hagan AD. Incidence and age distribution of patients with myocardial infarction and normal coronary arteriograms. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1977;3:1–9.
Thompson EA, Ferraris S, Gress T, Ferraris V. Gender differences and predictors of mortality in spontaneous coronary artery dissection: a review of reported cases. J Invasive Cardiol. 2005;17:59–61.
Cipriano PR, Koch FH, Rosenthal SJ, Baim DS, Ginsburg R, Schroeder JS. Myocardial infarction in patients with coronary artery spasm demonstrated by angiography. Am Heart J. 1983;105:542–7.
Gersh BJ, Chesebro JH, Bove AA. Myocardial infarction with angiographically “normal” coronary arteries: is this rapid progression of early coronary artery disease? Chest. 1984;84:654–6.
Legrand V, Deliege M, Henrard L, Boland J, Kulbertus H. Patients with myocardial infarction and normal coronary arteriogram. Chest. 1982;82:678–85.
Lindsay J, Pichard AD. Acute myocardial infarction with normal coronary arteries. Am J Cardiol. 1984;54:902–4.
Rosenblatt A, Selzer A. The nature and clinical features of myocardial infarction with normal coronary arteriogram. Circulation. 1977;55:578–80.
Ciraulo DA, Bresnahan GF, Frankel PS, Isely PE, Zimmerman WR, Chesne RB. Transmural myocardial infarction with normal coronary angiograms and with single vessel coronary obstruction. Chest. 1983;83:196–202.
Glover MU, Kuber MT, Warren SE, Vieweg WVR. Myocardial infarction before age 36: risk factor and arteriographic analysis. Am J Cardiol. 1982;49:1600–3.
Smith HWB, Liberman HA, Brody SL, Battey LL, Donohue B, Morris DC. Acute myocardial infarction temporally related to cocaine use: clinical, angiographic and pathophysiologic observations. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107:13–8.
Ottervanger JP, Wilson JH, Stricker BH. Drug-induced chest pain and myocardial infarction. Reports to a national centre and review of the literature. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1997;53(2):105–10.
Wittstein IS, Thiemann DR, Lima JA, Baughman KL, Schulman SP, Gerstenblith G, Wu KC, Rade JJ, Bivalacqua TJ, Champion HC. Neurohumoral features of myocardial stunning due to sudden emotional stress. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(6):539–48.
Microcirculatory Angina
Likoff W, Segal BL, Kasparian H. Paradox of normal selective coronary arteriograms in patients considered to have unmistakable coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1967;276:1063.
Kemp HG. Left ventricular function in patients with the anginal syndrome and normal coronary arteriograms. Am J Cardiol. 1973;32:375.
Cannon RO, Schenke WH, Leon MB, et al. Limited coronary flow reserve after dipyridamole in patients with ergonovine-induced coronary vasoconstriction. Circulation. 1987;75:163.
Cannon RO, Bonow RO, Bacharach SL, et al. Left ventricular dysfunction in patients with angina pectoris, normal epicardial coronary arteries, and abnormal vasodilator reserve. Circulation. 1985;7:218.
Hasdai D, Holmes Jr DR, Higano ST, Burnett Jr JC, Lerman A. Prevalence of coronary blood flow reserve abnormalities among patients with nonobstructive coronary artery disease and chest pain. Mayo Clin Proc. 1998;73:1133–40.
Cannon RO. Microvascular angina: pathophysiology, diagnostic techniques and interventions. In: Braunwald E, editor. Heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine. 3rd ed. New York: W.B. Saunders; 1991. p. 343–50.
Geltman EM, Henes CG, Senneff MJ, Sobel BE, Bergman SR. Increased myocardial perfusion at rest and diminished perfusion reserve in patients with angina and angiographically normal coronary arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990;16:586–95.
Cannon RO, Epstein SE. “Microvascular angina” as a cause of chest pain with angiographically normal coronary arteries. Am J Cardiol. 1988;61:1338.
Cannon RO, Watson RM, Rosing DR, et al. Angina caused by reduced vasodilator reserve of the small coronary arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1983;1:1359.
Opherk D, Zebe H, Weihe E, et al. Reduced coronary dilatory capacity and ultrastructural changes of the myocardium in patients with angina pectoris but normal coronary arteriograms. Circulation. 1981;63:817.
Cannon III RO. Cardiovascular syndrome X: is it real? Contemp Intern Med. 1998;10:7–16.
Marcus ML, Mueller TM, Gascho JA, Kerber KE. Effects of cardiac hypertrophy secondary to hypertension on the coronary circulation. Am J Cardiol. 1979;44:747–53.
Opherk D, Schwartz F, Mall G, Manthey J, Baller D, Kubler W. Coronary dilatory capacity in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: analysis of 16 patients. Am J Cardiol. 1983;51:1657–62.
Brush JE, Cannon RO, Schenke WH, Bonow RO, Leon MB, Maron BJ, Epstein SE. Angina due to coronary microvascular disease in hypertensive patients without left ventricular hypertrophy. N Engl J Med. 1988;319:1302–7.
Ryan TJ, Treasure CB, Yeung AC, Klein JL, Selwyn AP, Ganz P. Impaired endothelium-dependent dilation of the coronary microvasculature in patients with atherosclerosis. Circulation. 1991;84(abst):II624.
Selke FW, Armstrong ML, Harrison DG. Endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation is abnormal in the coronary microcirculation of atherosclerotic primates. Circulation. 1990;81:1586.
Wilson RF, Christensen BV, Zimmer S, Laxson D. The effects of adenosine on human coronary circulation. Circulation. 1990;82:1595–606.
Sax FL, Cannon RO, Hanson C, Epstein SE. Impaired forearm vasodilator reserve in patients with microvascular angina. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:1366–70.
Egashira K, Inou T, Hirooka Y, Yamada A, Urabe Y, Takeshita A. Evidence of impaired endothelium dependent coronary vasodilation in patients with angina pectoris and normal coronary angiograms. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1659–64.
Fish RP, Nabel EG, Selwyn AP, Ludmer PL, Mudge GH, Kirshenbaum JM, Schoen FJ, Alexander RW, Ganz P. Responses of coronary arteries of cardiac transplant patients to acetylcholine. J Clin Invest. 1988;81:21–31.
Davis SF, Yeung AC, Meredith IT, Charbonneau F, Ganz P, Selwyn AP, Anderson TJ. Early endothelial dysfunction predicts the development of transplant coronary artery disease at 1 year posttransplant. Circulation. 1996;93(3):457–62.
Vogt M, Rabenau O, Motz W, Strauer BE. Evidence of endothelial dysfunction in patients with angina pectoris and angiographically normal coronary arteries. Circulation. 1989;80(abst):II436.
Radiation-Induced Coronary Artery Disease
McReynolds RA, Gold GL, Roberts WC. Coronary heart disease after mediastinal irradiation for Hodgkin’s disease. Am J Med. 1976;60:39–45.
Hancock SL, Tucker MA, Hoppe RT. Factors affecting late mortality from heart disease after treatment of Hodgkin disease. JAMA. 1993;270:1949–55.
Reinders JG, Heijmen BJ, Olofsen-van Acht MJ, et al. Ischemic heart disease after mantlefield irradiation for Hodgkin disease in long-term follow-up. Radiother Oncol. 1999;51:35–42.
Steward JR, Cohn KE, Fajardo LF, Hancock EW, Kaplan HS. Radiation-induced heart disease. Radiology. 1967;89:302–10.
Pohjola-Sintonen S, Totterman KJ, Almo M, Siltanen P. Late cardiac effects of mediastinal radiotherapy in patients with Hodgkin’s disease. Cancer. 1987;60:31–7.
Brosius FC, Waller BF, Roberts WC. Radiation heart disease: analysis of 16 young (aged 15–33 years) necropsy patients who received over 3,500 rads to the heart. Am J Med. 1981;70:519–30.
Theodoulou M, Seidman AD. Cardiac effects of adjuvant therapy for early breast cancer. Semin Oncol. 2003;30:730–9.
Tracy GP, Brown DE, Johnson LW, Gottlieb AJ. Radiation-induced coronary artery disease. JAMA. 1974;228:1660–2.
Prentice RTW. Myocardial infarction following radiation. Lancet. 1965;2:388.
Stewart RJ, Cohn K, Hancock EW, et al. Radiation induced heart disease. Radiology. 1967;89:302–10.
Carmel RJ, Kaplan HS. Mantle irradiation in Hodgkin’s disease: an analysis of technique, tumor eradication and complications. Cancer. 1976;37:2813–25.
Transplant-Related Arteriopathy
Oguma S, Okazaki H, Jimbo M, Iguchi A, Takahashi H, Ishizaki M. Vascular rejection and arteriosclerosis. Transplant Proc. 1987;19:63–70.
Lurie KG, Billingham ME, Jamieson SW, Harrison DC, Reitz BA. Pathogenesis and prevention of graft arteriosclerosis in an experimental heart transplant model. Transplantation. 1981;31:41–7.
Pucci AM, Forbes RDC, Billingham ME. Pathologic features in long-term cardiac allografts. J Heart Transplant. 1990;9:339–45.
Johnson DE, Gao SZ, Schroeder JS, DeCampli WM, Billinham ME. The spectrum of coronary artery pathologic findings in heart cardiac allografts. J Heart Transplant. 1989;8:349–59.
Libby P, Salomon RN, Payne DD, Schoen FJ, Pober JS. Functions of vascular wall cells related to development of transplantation-associated coronary arteriosclerosis. Transplant Proc. 1989;21:3677–84.
Kapadia SR, Nissen SE, Tuzcu EM. Impact of intravascular ultrasound in understanding transplant coronary artery disease. Curr Opin Cardiol. 1999;14(2):140–50.
Kapadia SR, Nissen SE, Ziada KM, Guetta V, Crowe TD, Hobbs RE, Starling RC, Young JB, Tuzcu EM. Development of transplantation vasculopathy and progression of donor-transmitted atherosclerosis: comparison by serial intravascular ultrasound imaging. Circulation. 1998;98(24):2672–8.
Liang DH, Gao SZ, Botas J, Pinto FJ, Schroeder JS, Alderman EL, Yeung AC. Prediction of angiographic disease by intracoronary ultrasonographic findings in heart transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1996;15(10):980–7.
Gao HZ, Hunt SA, Alderman EL, Liang D, Yeung AC, Schroeder JS. Relation of donor age and preexisting coronary artery disease on angiography and intracoronary ultrasound to later development of accelerated allograft coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29(3):623–9.
Uretsky BF, Murali S, Reddy PS, Rabin B, Lee A, Griffith BP, Haresty RL, Trento A, Bahnson HT. Development of coronary artery disease in cardiac transplant patients. Circulation. 1987;76:827–34.
Gao SZ, Schroeder JS, Alderman EL, Hunt SA, Valantine HA, Wiederhold V, Stinson EB. Prevalence of accelerated coronary artery disease in heart transplant survivors. Circulation. 1989;80(Suppl III):III100–5.
Gao SZ, Alderman EL, Schroeder JS, Silverman JF, Hunt SA. Accelerated coronary vascular disease in the heart transplant patient: coronary arteriographic findings. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;12:334–40.
Olivari MT, Homans DC, Wilson RF, Kubo SH, Ring WS. Coronary artery disease in cardiac transplant patients receiving triple-drug immunosuppressive therapy. Circulation. 1989;80(Suppl III):III-111–5.
Gao SZ, Alderman EL, Schroeder JS, Hunt SA, Wiederhold V, Stinson EB. Progressive coronary luminal narrowing after cardiac transplantation. Circulation. 1990;82(Suppl IV):IV269–75.
Nitkin RS, Hunt SA, Schroeder JS. Accelerated atherosclerosis in a cardiac transplant patient. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1985;6:243–5.
Mulvagh SL, Thornton B, Frazier OH, Radovancevic B, Norton HJ, Noon GP, Young JB. The older cardiac transplant donor: relation to graft function and recipient survival longer than 6 years. Circulation. 1989;80(Suppl III):III-126–32.
O’Neill B, Pflugfelder PW, Singh NR, Menkis AH, McKenzie FN, Kostuk WJ. Frequency of angiographic detection and quantitative assessment of coronary arterial disease one and three years after cardiac transplantation. Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:1221–6.
Sharples LD, Mullin PA, Cary NRB, Large SR, Schofield PM, Wallwork J. A method of analyzing the onset and progression of coronary occlusive disease after transplantation and its effect on patient survival. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1993;12:381–7.
McGinn AL, Christensen BV, Meyer S, Simon A, Kubo SH, Laxson DD, Wilson RF. Early impairment of nitroglycerine-induced coronary dilation after human cardiac transplantation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;17(2):309A (abstract).
Goldenberg IF, Levine TB. Coronary artery spasm in a denervated orthotopic transplanted human heart. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1986;12:44–7.
Vasculitis
Lie JT. Coronary vasculitis: a review in the current scheme of classification of vasculitis. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1987;111:224–33.
Kawai S, Fukuda Y, Okada R. Atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries in collagen disease and allied disorders, with special reference to vasculitis as a preceding lesion of coronary atherosclerosis. Jpn Circ J. 1982;46:1208–21.
Tanaka M, Abe T, Takeuchi E, Watanabe T, Tamaki S. Revascularization for coronary ostial stenosis in Takayasu’s disease with calcified aorta. Ann Thorac Surg. 1992;53:894–5.
Ishikawa K. Diagnostic approach and proposed criteria for the clinical diagnosis of Takayasu’s arteriopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;12:964–72.
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Wilson, R.F. (2015). Coronary Angiography. In: Willerson, J., Holmes, Jr., D. (eds) Coronary Artery Disease. Cardiovascular Medicine. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2828-1_5
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