Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Medical Treatment of Stable Angina

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Coronary Artery Disease

Part of the book series: Cardiovascular Medicine ((CVM))

  • 5948 Accesses

Abstract

The medical treatment for patients with stable angina rests in correcting risk factors predisposing to the progression of coronary heart disease and unstable coronary artery plaques. High importance should be given to lowering low-density lipoprotein values as far below 100 mg/dl as possible with diet and medication, usually a statin. Control of blood pressure, blood sugar, and heart rate are very important. Medications that reduce myocardial oxygen demand (beta blockers) and those that increase myocardial blood flow (nitrates and selected calcium antagonists in appropriate patients) are sometimes also important. Aspirin therapy to reduce risk of intracoronary thrombus formation and possibly attenuate inflammation is also important in all patients who are able to take it. The patient on ideal medical therapy with angina or objective evidence of myocardial ischemia at rest or low levels of effort should undergo coronary arteriography with a plan to proceed to percutaneous coronary intervention or coronary artery surgery when the coronary anatomy allows. Patients with heart failure and stable angina need to be evaluated similarly with imaging procedures that characterize their left ventricular function, cardiac valves, and pulmonary artery pressure.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Danahy DT, Aronow WS. Hemodynamics and antianginal effects of high dose oral isosorbide dinitrate after chronic use. Circulation. 1977;56(2):205–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Glancy DL, Richter MA, Ellis EV, Johnson W. Effect of swallowed isosorbide dinitrate on blood pressure, heart rate and exercise capacity in patients with coronary artery disease. Am J Med. 1977;62(1):39–46.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Horowitz JD, Antman EM, Lorell BH, Barry WH, Smith TW. Potentiation of the cardiovascular effects of nitroglycerin by N-acetylcysteine. Circulation. 1983;68(6):1247–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Markis JE, Gorlin R, Mills RM, et al. Sustained effect of orally administered isosorbide dinitrate on exercise performance of patients with angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol. 1979;43(2):265–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Mason DT, Braunwald E. The effects of nitroglycerin and amyl nitrite on arteriolar and venous tone in the human forearm. Circulation. 1965;32(5):755–66.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Murad F, Arnold WP, Mittal CK, Braughler JM. Properties and regulation of guanylate cyclase and some proposed functions for cyclic GMP. Adv Cyclic Nucleotide Res. 1979;11:175–204.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Parker JO, VanKoughnett KA, Fung HL. Transdermal isosorbide dinitrate in angina pectoris: effect of acute and sustained therapy. Am J Cardiol. 1984;54(1):8–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Reichek N, Priest C, Zimrin D, Chandler T, Sutton MS. Antianginal effects of nitroglycerin patches. Am J Cardiol. 1984;54(1):1–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Thadani U, Fung HL, Darke AC, Parker JO. Oral isosorbide dinitrate in angina pectoris: comparison of duration of action an dose-response relation during acute and sustained therapy. Am J Cardiol. 1982;49(2):411–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Abrams J. Nitrate tolerance and dependence. Am Heart J. 1980;99(1):113–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Needleman P, Johnson Jr EM. Mechanism of tolerance development to organic nitrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1973;184(3):709–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Cheitlin MD, Hutter Jr AM, Brindis RG, et al. ACC/AHA expert consensus document. Use of sildenafil (Viagra) in patients with cardiovascular disease. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;33(1):273–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA. 2003;289(19):2560–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Smith Jr SC, Blair SN, Bonow RO, et al. AHA/ACC guidelines for preventing heart attack and death in patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: 2001 update. A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;38(5):1581–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Conolly ME, Kersting F, Dollery CT. The clinical pharmacology of beta-adrenoceptor-blocking drugs. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1976;19(3):203–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Dreyfuss J, Brannick LJ, Vukovich RA, Shaw JM, Willard DA. Metabolic studies in patients with nadolol: oral and intravenous administration. J Clin Pharmacol. 1977;17(5–6):300–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Frishman W. Clinical pharmacology of the new beta-adrenergic blocking drugs. Part 1. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties. Am Heart J. 1979;97(5):663–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Frishman W. Clinical pharmacology of the new beta-adrenergic blocking drugs. Part 9. Nadolol: a new long-acting beta-adrenoceptor blocking drug. Am Heart J. 1980;99(1):124–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Koch-Weser J. Drug therapy: metoprolol. N Engl J Med. 1979;301(13):698–703.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Koch-Weser J, Frishman WH. beta-Adrenoceptor antagonists: new drugs and new indications. N Engl J Med. 1981;305(9):500–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Moses JW, Borer JS. Beta-adrenergic antagonists in the treatment of patients with heart disease. Dis Mon. 1981;27(9):1–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Opie LH. Drugs and the heart. Lancet. 1980;1(8170):693–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Andreasen F, Boye E, Christoffersen E, et al. Assessment of verapamil in the treatment of angina pectoris. Eur J Cardiol. 1975;2(4):443–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Balasubramanian V, Khanna PK, Naryanan GR, Hoon RS. Verapamil in ischaemic heart disease – quantitative assessment by serial multistage treadmill exercise. Postgrad Med J. 1976;52(605):143–7.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Forman R, Eng C, Kirk ES. Comparative effect of verapamil and nitroglycerin on collateral blood flow. Circulation. 1983;67(6):1200–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Freedman B, Dunn RF, Richmond DR, Kelly DT. Coronary artery spasm during exercise: treatment with verapamil. Circulation. 1981;64(1):68–75.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Gunther S, Green L, Muller JE, Mudge Jr GH, Grossman W. Prevention of nifedipine of abnormal coronary vasoconstriction in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation. 1981;63(4):849–55.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Hansen JF, Sandoe E. Treatment of Prinzmetal’s angina due to coronary artery spasm using verapamil: a report of three cases. Eur J Cardiol. 1978;7(4):327–35.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Heng MK, Singh BN, Roche AH, Norris RM, Mercer CJ. Effects of intravenous verapamil on cardiac arrhythmias and on the electrocardiogram. Am Heart J. 1975;90(4):487–98.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Hillis LD. The new coronary vasodilators: calcium blockers. J Cardiovasc Med. 1980;5(6):583–90.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Hugenholtz PG, Michels HR, Serruys PW, Brower RW. Nifedipine in the treatment of unstable angina, coronary spasm and myocardial ischemia. Am J Cardiol. 1981;47(1):163–73.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Johnson SM, Mauritson DR, Corbett JR, et al. Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled comparison of propranolol and verapamil in the treatment of patients with stable angina pectoris. Am J Med. 1981;71(3):443–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Johnson SM, Mauritson DR, Willerson JT, Hillis LD. A controlled trial of verapamil for Prinzmetal’s variant angina. N Engl J Med. 1981;304(15):862–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Johnson SM, Mauritson DR, Willerson JT, Hillis LD. Comparison of verapamil and nifedipine in the treatment of variant angina pectoris: preliminary observations in 10 patients. Am J Cardiol. 1981;47(6):1295–300.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Livesley B, Catley PF, Campbell RC, Oram S. Double-blind evaluation of verapamil, propranolol, and isosorbide dinitrate against a placebo in the treatment of angina pectoris. Br Med J. 1973;1(5850):375–8.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Muller JE, Gunther SJ. Nifedipine therapy for Prinzmetal’s angina. Circulation. 1978;57(1):137–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Nagao T, Ikeo T, Sato M. Influence of calcium ions on responses to diltiazem in coronary arteries. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1977;27(2):330–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Neumann M, Luisada AA. Double blind evaluation of orally administered iproveratril in patients with angina pectoris. Am J Med Sci. 1966;251(5):552–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Previtali M, Salerno JA, Tavazzi L, et al. Treatment of angina at rest with nifedipine: a short-term controlled study. Am J Cardiol. 1980;45(4):825–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Sandler G, Clayton GA, Thornicroft SG. Clinical evaluation of verapamil in angina pectoris. Br Med J. 1968;3(5612):224–7.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Schamroth L. Immediate effects of intravenous verapamil on atrial fibrillation. Cardiovasc Res. 1971;5(4):419–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Schroeder JS, Lamb IH, Ginsburg R, Bristow MR, Hung J. Diltiazem for long-term therapy of coronary arterial spasm. Am J Cardiol. 1982;49(3):533–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Solberg LE, Nissen RG, Vlietstra RE, Callahan JA. Prinzmetal’s variant angina – response to verapamil. Mayo Clin Proc. 1978;53(4):256–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Theroux P, Waters DD, Affaki GS, et al. Provocative testing with ergonovine to evaluate the efficacy of treatment with calcium antagonists in variant angina. Circulation. 1979;60(3):504–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Weishaar R, Ashikawa K, Bing RJ. Effect of diltiazem, a calcium antagonist, on myocardial ischemia. Am J Cardiol. 1979;43(6):1137–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Winniford MD, Johnson SM, Mauritson DR, et al. Verapamil therapy for Prinzmetal’s variant angina: comparison with placebo and nifedipine. Am J Cardiol. 1982;50(4):913–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Nissen SE, Tuzcu EM, Libby P, et al. Effect of antihypertensive agents on cardiovascular events in patients with coronary disease and normal blood pressure: the CAMELOT study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;292(18):2217–25.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Furberg CD, Psaty BM, Meyer JV. Nifedipine. Dose-related increase in mortality in patients with coronary heart disease. Circulation. 1995;92(5):1326–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Mancini GB, Henry GC, Macaya C, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition with quinapril improves endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. The TREND (Trial on Reversing ENdothelial Dysfunction) Study. Circulation. 1996;94(3):258–65.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, et al. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(3):145–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Fox KM, Henderson JR, Bertrand ME, et al. The European trial on reduction of cardiac events with perindopril in stable coronary artery disease (EUROPA). Eur Heart J. 1998;19(Suppl J):J52–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Braunwald E, Domanski MJ, Fowler SE, et al. Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition in stable coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(20):2058–68.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Eidt JF, Allison P, Noble S, et al. Thrombin is an important mediator of platelet aggregation in stenosed canine coronary arteries with endothelial injury. J Clin Invest. 1989;84(1):18–27.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Eidt JF, Ashton J, Golino P, et al. Thromboxane A2 and serotonin mediate coronary blood flow reductions in unsedated dogs. Am J Physiol. 1989;257(3 Pt 2):H873–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Golino P, Ambrosio G, Ragni M, et al. Short-term and long-term role of platelet activating factor as a mediator of in vivo platelet aggregation. Circulation. 1993;88(3):1205–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Golino P, Piscione F, Benedict CR, et al. Local effect of serotonin released during coronary angioplasty. N Engl J Med. 1994;330(8):523–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Yao SK, Ober JC, Ferguson JJ, et al. Combination of inhibition of thrombin and blockade of thromboxane A2 synthetase and receptors enhances thrombolysis and delays reocclusion in canine coronary arteries. Circulation. 1992;86(6):1993–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Yao SK, Ober JC, Gonenne A, et al. Active oxygen species play a role in mediating platelet aggregation and cyclic flow variations in severely stenosed and endothelium-injured coronary arteries. Circ Res. 1993;73(5):952–67.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Yao SK, Ober JC, McNatt J, et al. ADP plays an important role in mediating platelet aggregation and cyclic flow variations in vivo in stenosed and endothelium-injured canine coronary arteries. Circ Res. 1992;70(1):39–48.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Antiplatelet Trialists’ Collaboration. Secondary prevention of vascular disease by prolonged antiplatelet treatment. Br Med J. 1988;296(6618):320–31.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Steering Committee of the Physicians’ Health Study Research Group. Final report on the aspirin component of the ongoing Physicians’ Health Study. N Engl J Med. 1989;321(3):129–35.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Klimt CR, Knatterud GL, Stamler J, Meier P. Persantine-Aspirin Reinfarction Study. Part II. Secondary coronary prevention with persantine and aspirin. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1986;7(2):251–69.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Peto R, Gray R, Collins R, et al. Randomised trial of prophylactic daily aspirin in British male doctors. Br Med J. 1988;296(6618):313–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Antiplatelet Trialists’ Collaboration. Collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy – I: prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke by prolonged antiplatelet therapy in various categories of patients. BMJ. 1994;308(6921):81–106.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Antiplatelet Trialists’ Collaboration. Collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy – II: maintenance of vascular graft or arterial patency by antiplatelet therapy. BMJ. 1994;308(6922):159–68.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Antiplatelet Trialists’ Collaboration. Collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy—III: reduction in venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism by antiplatelet prophylaxis among surgical and medical patients. BMJ. 1994;308(6923):235–46.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Antithrombotic Trialists’ Collaboration. Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ. 2002;324(7329):71–86.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Taylor DW, Barnett HJ, Haynes RB, et al. Low-dose and high-dose acetylsalicylic acid for patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy: a randomised controlled trial. ASA and Carotid Endarterectomy (ACE) Trial Collaborators. Lancet. 1999;353(9171):2179–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Bennett CL, Connors JM, Carwile JM, et al. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura associated with clopidogrel. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(24):1773–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Ferguson J. Clopidogrel. In: Braunwald E, editor. Harrison’s advances in cardiology. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2002. p. 144–54.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Kupfer Y, Tessler S. Ticlopidine and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. N Engl J Med. 1997;337(17):1245.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Pereillo JM, Maftouh M, Andrieu A, et al. Structure and stereochemistry of the active metabolite of clopidogrel. Drug Metab Dispos. 2002;30(11):1288–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Savi P, Pereillo JM, Uzabiaga MF, et al. Identification and biological activity of the active metabolite of clopidogrel. Thromb Haemost. 2000;84(5):891–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Schror K. The basic pharmacology of ticlopidine and clopidogrel. Platelets. 1993;4(5):252–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Schror K. Ticlopidine and clopidogrel. In: Ferguson J, Chronos NAF, Harrington RA, editors. Antiplatelet therapy in clinical practice. London: Martin Duntz; 2000. p. 93–113.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Weber AA, Reimann S, Schror K. Specific inhibition of ADP-induced platelet aggregation by clopidogrel in vitro. Br J Pharmacol. 1999;126(2):415–20.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Gent M, Blakely JA, Easton JD, et al. The Canadian American Ticlopidine Study (CATS) in thromboembolic stroke. Lancet. 1989;1(8649):1215–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Hass WK, Easton JD, Adams Jr HP, et al. A randomized trial comparing ticlopidine hydrochloride with aspirin for the prevention of stroke in high-risk patients. Ticlopidine Aspirin Stroke Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1989;321(8):501–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. CAPRIE Steering Committee. A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). Lancet. 1996;348(9038):1329–39.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Bhatt DL, Chew DP, Hirsch AT, et al. Superiority of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients with prior cardiac surgery. Circulation. 2001;103(3):363–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Bhatt DL, Marso SP, Hirsch AT, et al. Amplified benefit of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients with diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90(6):625–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Ferguson J, Massin EK. The effect of clopidogrel vs. aspirin on recurrent clinical events and mortality: results from the CAPRIE study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(2 Suppl A):36A.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Yusuf S, Zhao F, Mehta SR, et al. Effects of clopidogrel in addition to aspirin in patients with acute coronary syndromes without ST-segment elevation. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(7):494–502.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Mehta SR, Yusuf S, Peters RJ, et al. Effects of pretreatment with clopidogrel and aspirin followed by long-term therapy in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: the PCI-CURE study. Lancet. 2001;358(9281):527–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Bhatt DL, Fox KA, Hacke W, et al. Clopidogrel and aspirin versus aspirin alone for the prevention of atherothrombotic events. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(16):1706–17.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Wiviott SD, Trenk D, Frelinger AL, et al. Prasugrel compared with high loading- and maintenance-dose clopidogrel in patients with planned percutaneous coronary intervention: the Prasugrel in Comparison to Clopidogrel for Inhibition of Platelet Activation and Aggregation-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 44 trial. Circulation. 2007;116(25):2923–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Prasugrel versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(20):2001–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Gurbel PA, Bliden KP, Butler K, et al. Randomized double-blind assessment of the ONSET and OFFSET of the antiplatelet effects of ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in patients with stable coronary artery disease: the ONSET/OFFSET study. Circulation. 2009;120(25):2577–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Gurbel PA, Bliden KP, Butler K, et al. Response to ticagrelor in clopidogrel nonresponders and responders and effect of switching therapies: the RESPOND study. Circulation. 2010;121(10):1188–99.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Wallentin L, Becker RC, Budaj A, et al. Ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(11):1045–57.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Comparison of sibrafiban with aspirin for prevention of cardiovascular events after acute coronary syndromes: a randomised trial. The SYMPHONY Investigators. Sibrafiban versus Aspirin to Yield Maximum Protection from Ischemic Heart Events Post-acute Coronary Syndromes. Lancet. 2000;355(9201):337–45.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Second SYMPHONY Investigators. Randomized trial of aspirin, sibrafiban, or both for secondary prevention after acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2001;103(13):1727–33.

    Google Scholar 

  93. O’Neill WW, Serruys P, Knudtson M, et al. Long-term treatment with a platelet glycoprotein-receptor antagonist after percutaneous coronary revascularization. EXCITE Trial Investigators Evaluation of Oral Xemilofiban in Controlling Thrombotic Events. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(18):1316–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Topol EJ, Easton D, Harrington RA, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, international trial of the oral IIb/IIIa antagonist lotrafiban in coronary and cerebrovascular disease. Circulation. 2003;108(4):399–406.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Chew DP, Bhatt DL, Sapp S, Topol EJ. Increased mortality with oral platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa antagonists: a meta-analysis of phase III multicenter randomized trials. Circulation. 2001;103(2):201–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Hirsh J, Fuster V, Ansell J, Halperin JL. American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology Foundation guide to warfarin therapy. Circulation. 2003;107(12):1692–711.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Whitlon DS, Sadowski JA, Suttie JW. Mechanism of coumarin action: significance of vitamin K epoxide reductase inhibition. Biochemistry (Mosc). 1978;17(8):1371–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. The Medical Research Council’s General Practice Research Framework. Thrombosis prevention trial: randomised trial of low-intensity oral anticoagulation with warfarin and low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of ischaemic heart disease in men at increased risk. Lancet. 1998;351(9098):233–41.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Chalmers TC, Matta RJ, Smith Jr H, Kunzler AM. Evidence favoring the use of anticoagulants in the hospital phase of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1977;297(20):1091–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Greisman H, Marcus RM. Acute myocardial infarction; detailed study of dicumarol therapy in 75 consecutive cases. Am Heart J. 1948;36(4):600–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Smith FJ, Keyes JW, Denham RM. Myocardial infarction: a study of the acute phase in 920 patients. Am J Med Sci. 1951;221(5):508–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Furman RH, Ball CO, Gale RG, Billings Jr FT, Meneely GR. An evaluation of anticoagulant therapy in myocardial infarction based on prognostic categories. Am J Med. 1953;14(6):681–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Loudon IS, Pease JC, Cooke AM. Anticoagulants in myocardial infarction. Br Med J. 1953;1(4816):911–3.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Schnur S. Mortality and other studies questioning the evidence for and value of routine anticoagulant therapy in acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1953;7(6):855–68.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Burton CR. Anticoagulant therapy of recent cardiac infarction. Can Med Assoc J. 1954;70(4):404–8.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Manson DI, Fullerton HW. Anticoagulant therapy in cardiac infarction. Br Med J. 1956;1(4957):6–8.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Eastman GL, Cook ET, Shinn ET, Dutton RE, Lyons RH. A clinical study of anticoagulants in acute myocardial infarction with particular reference to early heparin therapy. Am J Med Sci. 1957;233(6):647–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Honey GE, Truelove SC. Prognostic factors in myocardial infarction. Lancet. 1957;272(6980):1155–61; contd.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Honey GE, Truelove SC. Prognostic factors in myocardial infarction. Lancet. 1957;272(6981):1209–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Rosenberg BA, Malach M. Acute myocardial infarction in a city hospital. II. Experience with anticoagulants. Am J Cardiol. 1958;2(1):71–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Toohey M. Anticoagulants in myocardial infarction. Br Med J. 1958;1(5065):252–5.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Richards RL, Seaton DA. Further observations on the value of anticoagulant therapy in the treatment of acute myocardial infarction. Scott Med J. 1961;6:559–64.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Blake TM, Orr ER, Simmons JW. Ineffectiveness of anticoagulants in myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 1962;63:462–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Griffith GC, Leak D, Hegde B. Conservative anticoagulant therapy of acute myocardial infarction. Ann Intern Med. 1962;57:254–65.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Gumpert TE. Anticoagulant treatment in 104 male cases of acute myocardial infarction. Lancet. 1962;1(7226):399–400.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Meltzer LE, Palmon F, Ferrigan M, et al. Prothrombin levels and fatality rates in acute myocardial infarction. JAMA. 1964;187:986–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Modan B, Shani M, Schor S, Modan M. Reduction of hospital mortality from acute myocardial infarction by anticoagulant therapy. N Engl J Med. 1975;292(26):1359–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Tonascia J, Gordis L, Schmerler H. Retrospective evidence favoring use of anticoagulants for myocardial infarctions. N Engl J Med. 1975;292(26):1362–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Wright IS, Marple CD, Beck DF. Report of the Committee for the Evaluation of Anticoagulants in the Treatment of Coronary Thrombosis with Myocardial Infarction; a progress report on the statistical analysis of the first 800 cases studied by this committee. Am Heart J. 1948;36(6):801–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Bresnick E, Selverstone LA, Rapoport B, et al. Experiences with dicumarol in acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1950;243(21):806–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Tulloch JA, Gilchrist AR. Anticoagulants in treatment of coronary thrombosis. Br Med J. 1950;2(4686):965–71.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Holten C. Anticoagulants in the treatment of coronary thrombosis. Acta Med Scand. 1951;140(5):340–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Feldman L, O’Connor WR, Friedman IA, Fischer JW. Anticoagulant therapy in acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 1952;44(1):112–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Rashkoff IA, Schaefer LE, Magida MG, Levy H. Evaluation of dicumarol therapy in 287 cases of acute myocardial infarction. J Mt Sinai Hosp N Y. 1952;18(6):350–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. McCluskie JA, Seaton DA. The value of anticoagulant therapy in the treatment of acute myocardial infarction. Scott Med J. 1959;4(6):305–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Hilden T, Iversen K, Raaschou F, Schwartz M. Anticoagulants in acute myocardial infarction. Lancet. 1961;2(7198):327–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Carleton RA, Sanders CA, Burack WR. Heparin administration after acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1960;263:1002–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Wasserman AJ, Gutterman LA, Yoe KB, Kemp Jr VE, Richardson DW. Anticoagulants in acute myocardial infarction: the failure of anticoagulants to alter mortality in a randomized series. Am Heart J. 1966;71(1):43–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Assessment of short-anticoagulant administration after cardiac infarction. Report of the Working Party on Anticoagulant Therapy in Coronary Thrombosis to the Medical Research Council. Br Med J. 1969;1(5640):335–42.

    Google Scholar 

  130. Drapkin A, Merskey C. Anticoagulant therapy after acute myocardial infarction: relation of therapeutic benefit to patient’s age, sex, and severity of infarction. JAMA. 1972;222(5):541–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Handley AJ, Emerson PA, Fleming PR. Heparin in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis after myocardial infarction. Br Med J. 1972;2(5811):436–8.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Anticoagulants in acute myocardial infarction: results of a cooperative clinical trial. JAMA. 1973;225(7):724–9.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Leizorovicz A, Boissel JP. Oral anticoagulant in patients surviving myocardial infarction: a new approach to old data. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1983;24(3):333–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Sixty Plus Reinfarction Study Research Group. A double-blind trial to assess long-term oral anticoagulant therapy in elderly patients after myocardial infarction. Lancet. 1980;2(8202):989–94.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Smith P, Arnesen H, Holme I. The effect of warfarin on mortality and reinfarction after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1990;323(3):147–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Ferguson JJ. Meeting highlights: highlights of the 22nd Congress of the European Society of Cardiology. Circulation. 2001;103(8):E41–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Coumadin Aspirin Reinfarction Study (CARS) Investigators. Randomised double-blind trial of fixed low-dose warfarin with aspirin after myocardial infarction. Lancet. 1997;350(9075):389–96.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Fiore LD, Ezekowitz MD, Brophy MT, et al. Department of Veterans Affairs Cooperative Studies Program Clinical Trial comparing combined warfarin and aspirin with aspirin alone in survivors of acute myocardial infarction: primary results of the CHAMP study. Circulation. 2002;105(5):557–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Anand SS, Yusuf S. Oral anticoagulants in patients with coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(4 Suppl S):62S–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Antzelevitch C, Belardinelli L, Zygmunt AC, et al. Electrophysiological effects of ranolazine, a novel antianginal agent with antiarrhythmic properties. Circulation. 2004;110(8):904–10.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Chaitman BR, Pepine CJ, Parker JO, et al. Effects of ranolazine with atenolol, amlodipine, or diltiazem on exercise tolerance and angina frequency in patients with severe chronic angina: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291(3):309–16.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Chaitman BR, Skettino SL, Parker JO, et al. Anti-ischemic effects and long-term survival during ranolazine monotherapy in patients with chronic severe angina. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43(8):1375–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Pepine CJ, Wolff AA. A controlled trial with a novel anti-ischemic agent, ranolazine, in chronic stable angina pectoris that is responsive to conventional antianginal agents. Ranolazine Study Group. Am J Cardiol. 1999;84(1):46–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Rousseau MF, Pouleur H, Cocco G, Wolff AA. Comparative efficacy of ranolazine versus atenolol for chronic angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol. 2005;95(3):311–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Morrow DA, Scirica BM, Karwatowska-Prokopczuk E, et al. Effects of ranolazine on recurrent cardiovascular events in patients with non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndromes: the MERLIN-TIMI 36 randomized trial. JAMA. 2007;297(16):1775–83.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Cairns JA. Ranolazine: augmenting the antianginal armamentarium. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48(3):576–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Stone PH, Gratsiansky NA, Blokhin A, Huang IZ, Meng L. Antianginal efficacy of ranolazine when added to treatment with amlodipine: the ERICA (Efficacy of Ranolazine in Chronic Angina) trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48(3):566–75.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Williams MA, Fleg JL, Ades PA, et al. Secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in the elderly (with emphasis on patients ≥75 years of age): an American Heart Association scientific statement from the Council on Clinical Cardiology Subcommittee on Exercise, Cardiac Rehabilitation, and Prevention. Circulation. 2002;105(14):1735–43.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Mamun AA, Peeters A, Barendregt J, et al. Smoking decreases the duration of life lived with and without cardiovascular disease: a life course analysis of the Framingham Heart Study. Eur Heart J. 2004;25(5):409–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Godtfredsen NS, Holst C, Prescott E, Vestbo J, Osler M. Smoking reduction, smoking cessation, and mortality: a 16-year follow-up of 19,732 men and women from The Copenhagen Centre for Prospective Population Studies. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;156(11):994–1001.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Sparrow D, Dawber TR. The influence of cigarette smoking on prognosis after a first myocardial infarction. A report from the Framingham study. J Chronic Dis. 1978;31(6–7):425–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. World Health Organization. The world health report: reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  153. Prospective Studies Collaboration. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360(9349):1903–13.

    Google Scholar 

  154. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs diuretic: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA. 2002;288(23):2981–97.

    Google Scholar 

  155. Ogden LG, He J, Lydick E, Whelton PK. Long-term absolute benefit of lowering blood pressure in hypertensive patients according to the JNC VI risk stratification. Hypertension. 2000;35(2):539–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, et al. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;336(16):1117–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Willett WC, Sacks F, Trichopoulou A, et al. Mediterranean diet pyramid: a cultural model for healthy eating. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;61(6 Suppl):1402S–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. de Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin JL, et al. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation. 1999;99(6):779–85.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Knoops KT, de Groot LC, Kromhout D, et al. Mediterranean diet, lifestyle factors, and 10-year mortality in elderly European men and women: the HALE project. JAMA. 2004;292(12):1433–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Dansinger ML, Gleason JA, Griffith JL, Selker HP, Schaefer EJ. Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone diets for weight loss and heart disease risk reduction: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2005;293(1):43–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Randomised trial of cholesterol lowering in 4444 patients with coronary heart disease: the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Lancet. 1994;344(8934):1383–9.

    Google Scholar 

  162. Sacks FM, Pfeffer MA, Moye LA, et al. The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and Recurrent Events Trial Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1996;335(14):1001–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Shepherd J, Cobbe SM, Ford I, et al. Prevention of coronary heart disease with pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolemia. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;333(20):1301–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation. 2002;106(25):3143–421.

    Google Scholar 

  165. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360(9326):7–22.

    Google Scholar 

  166. Cannon CP, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Intensive versus moderate lipid lowering with statins after acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2004;350(15):1495–504.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Nissen SE, Tuzcu EM, Schoenhagen P, et al. Effect of intensive compared with moderate lipid-lowering therapy on progression of coronary atherosclerosis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291(9):1071–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. de Lemos JA, Blazing MA, Wiviott SD, et al. Early intensive vs a delayed conservative simvastatin strategy in patients with acute coronary syndromes: phase Z of the A to Z trial. JAMA. 2004;292(11):1307–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Pitt B, Waters D, Brown WV, et al. Aggressive lipid-lowering therapy compared with angioplasty in stable coronary artery disease. Atorvastatin versus Revascularization Treatment Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(2):70–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Barter PJ, Caulfield M, Eriksson M, et al. Effects of torcetrapib in patients at high risk for coronary events. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(21):2109–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Cannon CP, Shah S, Dansky HM, et al. Safety of anacetrapib in patients with or at high risk for coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(25):2406–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Nicholls SJ, Brewer HB, Kastelein JJ, et al. Effects of the CETP inhibitor evacetrapib administered as monotherapy or in combination with statins on HDL and LDL cholesterol: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2011;306(19):2099–109.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Grundy SM, Brewer Jr HB, Cleeman JI, Smith Jr SC, Lenfant C. Definition of metabolic syndrome: report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association conference on scientific issues related to definition. Circulation. 2004;109(3):433–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Dandona P, Aljada A, Chaudhuri A, Mohanty P, Garg R. Metabolic syndrome: a comprehensive perspective based on interactions between obesity, diabetes, and inflammation. Circulation. 2005;111(11):1448–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Grundy SM, Hansen B, Smith Jr SC, Cleeman JI, Kahn RA. Clinical management of metabolic syndrome: report of the American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Diabetes Association conference on scientific issues related to management. Circulation. 2004;109(4):551–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Kereiakes DJ, Willerson JT. Metabolic syndrome epidemic. Circulation. 2003;108(13):1552–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Reilly MP, Rader DJ. The metabolic syndrome: more than the sum of its parts? Circulation. 2003;108(13):1546–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Kahn R, Buse J, Ferrannini E, Stern M. The metabolic syndrome: time for a critical appraisal. Joint statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetologia. 2005;48(9):1684–99.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Kantrowitz A. Experimental augmentation of coronary flow by retardation of the arterial pressure pulse. Surgery. 1953;34(4):678–87.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Singh M, Holmes Jr DR, Tajik AJ, Barsness GW. Noninvasive revascularization by enhanced external counterpulsation: a case study and literature review. Mayo Clin Proc. 2000;75(9):961–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Arora RR, Chou TM, Jain D, et al. The multicenter study of enhanced external counterpulsation (MUST-EECP): effect of EECP on exercise-induced myocardial ischemia and anginal episodes. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;33(7):1833–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Urano H, Ikeda H, Ueno T, et al. Enhanced external counterpulsation improves exercise tolerance, reduces exercise-induced myocardial ischemia and improves left ventricular diastolic filling in patients with coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(1):93–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Arora RR, Lopez S, Saric M. Enhanced external counterpulsation improves systolic function by echocardiography in patients with coronary artery disease. Heart Lung. 2005;34(2):122–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Kern MJ, Aguirre FV, Tatineni S, et al. Enhanced coronary blood flow velocity during intraaortic balloon counterpulsation in critically ill patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1993;21(2):359–68.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Sessa WC, Pritchard K, Seyedi N, Wang J, Hintze TH. Chronic exercise in dogs increases coronary vascular nitric oxide production and endothelial cell nitric oxide synthase gene expression. Circ Res. 1994;74(2):349–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Effects of estrogen or estrogen/progestin regimens on heart disease risk factors in postmenopausal women. The Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions (PEPI) Trial. The Writing Group for the PEPI Trial. JAMA. 1995;273(3):199–208.

    Google Scholar 

  187. Mendelsohn ME, Karas RH. The protective effects of estrogen on the cardiovascular system. N Engl J Med. 1999;340(23):1801–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, et al. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group. JAMA. 1998;280(7):605–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Writing Group for the Women’s Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288(3):321–33.

    Google Scholar 

  190. Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291(14):1701–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Hawkey CJ. COX-2 inhibitors. Lancet. 1999;353(9149):307–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Silverstein FE, Faich G, Goldstein JL, et al. Gastrointestinal toxicity with celecoxib vs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis: the CLASS study: a randomized controlled trial. Celecoxib Long-term Arthritis Safety Study. JAMA. 2000;284(10):1247–55.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. FitzGerald GA. COX-2 and beyond: approaches to prostaglandin inhibition in human disease. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2003;2(11):879–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Bombardier C, Laine L, Reicin A, et al. Comparison of upper gastrointestinal toxicity of rofecoxib and naproxen in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. VIGOR Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(21):1520–8, 1522 p following 1528.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Bresalier RS, Sandler RS, Quan H, et al. Cardiovascular events associated with rofecoxib in a colorectal adenoma chemoprevention trial. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(11):1092–102.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Solomon SD, McMurray JJ, Pfeffer MA, et al. Cardiovascular risk associated with celecoxib in a clinical trial for colorectal adenoma prevention. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(11):1071–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. National Institutes of Health. Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs suspended in large Alzheimer’s disease prevention trial. http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/dec2004/od-20.htm. Accessed 23 July 2012.

  198. Antman EM, DeMets D, Loscalzo J. Cyclooxygenase inhibition and cardiovascular risk. Circulation. 2005;112(5):759–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Losordo DW, Henry TD, Davidson C, et al. Intramyocardial, autologous CD34+ cell therapy for refractory angina. Circ Res. 2011;109(4):428–36.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Budoff MJ, Shaw LJ, Liu ST, et al. Long-term prognosis associated with coronary calcification: observations from a registry of 25,253 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:1860–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Borer JS, Bacharach SL, Green MV, et al. Real-time radionuclide cineangiography in the noninvasive evaluation of global and regional left ventricular function at rest and during exercise in patients with coronary-artery disease. N Engl J Med. 1977;296(15):839–44.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Corbett JR, Dehmer GJ, Lewis SE, et al. The prognostic value of submaximal exercise testing with radionuclide ventriculography before hospital discharge in patients with recent myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1981;64(3):535–44.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Willerson JT, Hillis LD, Buja LM, editors. Ischemic heart disease: clinical and pathological aspects. New York: Raven; 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  204. Willerson JT. Treatment of heart disease. New York: Gower Medical; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  205. Hillis LD, Firth BG, Willerson JT. Manual of clinical problems in cardiology. 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  206. Packer M, Frishman WH. Calcium channel antagonists in cardiovascular disease: focus on Verapamil. East Norwalk: Appleton-Century Crofts; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cardiology Division, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX, USA

    James T. Willerson MD (President)

  2. Cardiology Research, Texas Heart Institute, Texas Medical Center, Houston, TX, USA

    James J. Ferguson III MD

  3. Vice President of AstraZenica Pharmaceuticals, Wilmington, DE, USA

    James J. Ferguson III MD

  4. Stem Cell Center, Texas Medical Center, Houston, TX, USA

    Dipsu D. Patel MD, MPH

  5. Private practice City, Texas, TX, USA

    Dipsu D. Patel MD, MPH

Authors
  1. James T. Willerson MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. James J. Ferguson III MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dipsu D. Patel MD, MPH
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to James T. Willerson MD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Cardiology Division, President, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, Texas, USA

    James T. Willerson

  2. Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, USA

    David R. Holmes, Jr.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer-Verlag London

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Willerson, J.T., Ferguson, J.J., Patel, D.D. (2015). Medical Treatment of Stable Angina. In: Willerson, J., Holmes, Jr., D. (eds) Coronary Artery Disease. Cardiovascular Medicine. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2828-1_17

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2828-1_17

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-2827-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-2828-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation