Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Central Nervous System

  • Chapter
Calcium in Internal Medicine

  • 188 Accesses

Abstract

Calcium ion (Ca2+) is an omnipresent intracellular messenger controlling multiple cell functions such as growth, differentiation, membrane permeability and exocytosis, synaptic activity and gene regulation. In neuronal cells, resting levels of intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) are around 50-200 nM, 104 times lower than extracellular Ca2+, which allows them to achieve a high ratio of signal to resting/background [Ca2+] i when [Ca2+] i is suddenly increased. Thus, relatively small, transient and localised increases in [Ca2+]i can induce a physiological response by activation of enzymes, change in membrane channels activity, neurotransmitter release modulation of synaptic transmission, programmed cell death through apoptosis and alteration of gene expression. Under normal conditions, the delicate balance between Ca2+ influx, Ca2+ buffering, intracellular Ca2+ storage and Ca2+ efflux is maintained, preserving wide options for Ca2+ signalling. However, it is currently established that excessive Ca2+ entry or inadequate buffering mechanisms can lead to acute overactivation of neurons or chronic neurotoxicity. The precise mechanisms by which neurotoxicity occurs are still not completely understood, despite the research efforts of the past 30 years.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Kelly RB. An introduction to the nerve terminal. In: Ballen HJ, editor. Neurotransmitter release. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999; 1–33.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Whittaker VP. The isolation and characterization of acetylcholine-containing particles from brain. Biochem J 1959;72:694–706.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Booth RFG, Clark JB. A rapid method for the preparation of relatively pure metabolically competent synaptosomes from rat brain. Biochem J 1978;176:365–70.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Whittaker VP. Thirty years of synaptosomes research. J Neurocytology 1993;22:735–42.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Tsien RW, Wheeler DB. Voltage-gated calcium channels. In: Carafoli E, Klee C, editors. Calcium as a cellular regulator. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999; 171–200.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Choi DW. Calcium-mediated neurotoxicity: relationship to specific channel types and role in ischemic damage. TINS 1988;11:465–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Stout AK, Raphael HM, Kanterewicz BI, Klann E, Reynolds IJ. Glutamate-induced neuron death requires mitochondrial calcium uptake. Nature Neuroscience 1998;1:366–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Brown EM, Gamba G, Riccardi D, Lombardi D, Butters R, Kifor O, etal. Cloning and characterization of an extracellular Ca2+-sensing receptor from bovine parathyroid. Nature 1993;366:575–89.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Ruat M, Molliver ME, Snowman AM, Snyder SH. Calcium sensing receptor: Molecular cloning in rat and localization to nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:3161–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Berridge MJ. Inositol trisphosphate and calcium signaling. Nature 1993;361:315–25.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Ghosh A, Greenberg ME. Calcium signaling in neurons: molecular mechanisms and cellular consequences. Science 1995;268:239–47.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Kawasaki H, Kretsinger RH. Calcium-binding proteins.I:EF-hands. Protein Profile 1994;1:342–91.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Lisman JE, Goldring MA. Feasibility of long-term storage of graded information by Ca2+/calmodulin- dependent protein kinase molecules of postsynaptic density. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988;85:5320–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Carafoli E, Stauffer T. The plasma membrane calcium pump: functional domains, regulation of the activity, and tissue specificity of isoform expression. J Neurobiol 1994;25:312–24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Philipson KD, Nicoli DA. Sodium-calcium exchange. Curr Opin Cell Biol 1992;4:678–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Hilgemann DW, Ball R. Regulation of cardiac Na+, Ca2+ exchanger and K+-ATP potassium channels by PIP2. Science 1996;273:956–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Dodge Jr FA, Rahamimoff R. Cooperative action of Ca ions in transmitter release at the neuromuscular junction. J Physiol (Lond) 1967;138:434–44.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Katz B, Miledi R. The effect of calcium on acetylcholine release from motor nerve terminals. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1965;161:496–503.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Silinsky EM. The biophysical pharmacology of calcium-dependent acetylcholine secretion. Pharmacol Rev 1985;37:81–132.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Miledi R. Transmitter release induced by injection of calcium ions into nerve terminals. Proc R Soc Lond (Biol) 1973;183:421–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Llinas R, Nicholson C. Calcium role in depolarisation-secretion coupling: an aequorin study in squid giant synapse. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1975;72:187–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Fossier P, Tauc L, Baux G. Calcium transients and neurotransmitter release at an identified synapse. Trends Neurosci1999;22:161–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Südhof TC. The synaptic vesicle cycle: a cascade of protein-protein interaction. Nature 1995; 375:645–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Kell RB. Synaptotagmin is just a calcium sensor. Curr Biol 1995;5:257–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Agranoff BW, Uhler MD. Learning and memory. In: Siegel GJ, editor. Basic neurochemistry: molecular, cellular, and medical aspects. New York: Raven Press, 1994; 1025–43.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Mattson MP, Camandola S. NF-KB in neuronal plasticity and neurodegenerative disorders. J Clin Invest 2001;107:247–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Baily CH, Kandel ER. Structural changes accompanying memory storage. Ann Rev Physiol 1993;55:397–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. McFadden SM, Greenberg ME. Membrane depolarization and calcium-induced c-fos transcription via phosphorylation of transcription factor CREB. Neuron 1990;4:571–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Larkman AU, Jack JB. Synaptic plasticity: hippocampal LTP. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1995;5:324–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Sattler R, Tymianski M. Calcium and cellular death. In: Verkhratsky A, Toescu EC, editors. Integrative aspects of calcium signaling. New York: Plenum Press, 1998;267–90.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Ojcius DM, Zychlinsky A, Zheng LM, Young D. Ionophore-induced apoptosis: role of DNA fragmentation and calcium fluxes. Exp Cell Res 1991;197:43–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Tyler HR. Neurologic disorders in renal failure. Am J Med 1968;44:734–48.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Nielsen VA. The peripheral nerve function in chronic renal failure. Acta Med Scand 1974;195:155–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Fraser CL. Neurologic manifestations of the uremic state in metabolic brain dysfunction. In: Arieff AI, Griggs RG, editors. Systemic disorders. Boston Toronto London: Little Brown & Company, 1992; 139–66.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Mahoney LA, Arieff IA. Central and peripheral nervous system effects of chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 1983;24:170–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Fraser CL, Sarnacki P, Arieff AI. Abnormal sodium transport in synaptosomes from brain in uremic rats. J Clin Invest 1985;74:2014–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Van den Noort S, Eckel RE, Bvine K. Brain metabolism in uremic and adenosine-infused rats. J Clin Invest 1968;47:2133–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Arieff AI, Massry SG. Calcium metabolism of brain in acute renal failure. J Clin Invest 1974;53:387–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Smogorzewski M, Campese VM, Massry SG. Abnormal norepinephrine uptake and release in brain synaptosomes in chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 1989;36:458–65.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Guisado R, Arieff AI, Massry SG. Changes in the electroencephalogram in acute uremia. J Clin Invest 1975;55:738–45.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Cogan MG, Covey CM, Arieff AI, Wisniesky A, Clark OH, Lazarowitz V, etal. Central nervous system manifestations of hyperparathyroidism. Am J Med 1978;65:963–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Massry SG. The relationship between the abnormalities in electroencephalogram and blood levels of PTH in dialysis patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980;51:130–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Akmal M, Goldstein DA, Multani S, Massry SG. Role of uremia, brain calcium and parathyroid hormone on change in electroencephalogram in chronic renal failure. Am J Physiol 1984;246:F575–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Smogorzewski M, Koureta P, Fadda GZ, Perna AF, Massry SG. Chronic parathyroid hormone excess in vivo increases resting levels of cytosolic calcium in brain synaptosomes: Studies in the presence and absence of chronic renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 1991;1162–8.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Massry SG, Smogorzewski M. The mechanisms responsible for the PTH-induced rise in cytosolic calcium in various cells - one not uniform. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1995;21:13–28.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Harvey S, Hayer S. Parathyroid hormone binding sites in the brain. Peptides 1993;14:1187–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Urena P, Kong X-F, Abou-Samra A-B, Juppner H, Kronenber HM, Pott Jr JT, et al. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)/PTH-related peptide receptor messenger ribonucleic acids are widely distributed in rat tissue. Endocrinology 1993;133:617–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Usdin TB, Bonner TI, Harata G, Mezey E. Distribution of parathyroid hormone-2 receptor messenger ribonucleic acid in rat. Endpcrinology 1996;137:4285–97.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Nutley MT, Parimi SA, Harvey S. Sequence analysis of hypothalamic parathyroid hormone messenger ribonucleic acid. Endocrinology 1995;136:5600–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Loffler F, Van Calker D, Hamprecht B. Parathyrin and calcitonin stimulate cyclic AMP accumulation in cultured murine brain cells. EMBO J 1982;1:297–302.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Smogorzewski M. Parathyroid hormone stimulates the generation of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate in brain synaptosomes. Am J Kidney Dis 1995;26:814–17.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Hirasawa T, Nakamura T, Mizushima A, Morita M, Ezawa I, Miyakawa H, etal. Adverse effects of active fragment of parathyroid hormone on rat hippocampal organotypic cultures. Brit J Pharmacol 2000;129:21–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Joburn C, Hetta J, Niklasson F, Rastad J, Wide L, Agren H, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid, calcium, parathyroid hormone and monoamine and purine metabolites and blood-brain barrier function in primary parathyroidism. Psychoneroendocrinology 1991;16:311–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Fraser CL, Sarnacki P, Arieff AI. Calcium transport abnormality in uremic rat brain synaptosomes. J Clin Invest 1985;76:1789–95.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Frasier CL, Sarnacki P. Parathyroid hormone mediates changes in calcium transport in uremic rat brain synaptosomes. Am J Physiol 1988;254:F837–47.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Fraser CL, Sarnacki P, Pudyar A. Evidence that parathyroid hormone-mediated calcium transport in rat brain synaptosomes is independent of cyclic adenosine monophosphate. J Clin Invest 1988;81:928–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Fraser CL, Sarnacki P. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate may regulate rat brain Ca++i by inhibiting membrane-bound Na+-Ca++ exchanger. J Clin Invest 1990;86:2169–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Hajjar SM, Smogorzewski M, Zayed MA, Fadda GZ, Massry SG. Effect of chronic renal failure on Ca2+- ATPase of brain synaptosomes. J Am Soc Nephrol 1991;2:1115–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Blaustein MP, Hodgkin AC. The effect of cyanide on the efflux of calcium from squid axon. J Physiol 1969;200:497–527.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Smogorzewski M, Islam A, Minasain R, Soliman AR, Massry SG. Verapamil corrects abnormalities in norepinephrine metabolism of brain synaptosomes in CRF. Am J Physiol 1990;258:F1036–41.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Tian J, Smogorzewski M, Kedes L, Massry SG. PTH-PTHrP receptors mRNA is down-regulated in chronic renal failure. Am J Nephrol 1994;14:41–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Urena P, Kubrusly M, Mannstadt M, Kurby M, Tan M-MTT, Silve C, et al. The renal PTH/PTHrP receptor is down-regulated in rats with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 1994;45:605–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Bradford HF. Chemical neurobiology. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Islam A, Smogorzewski M, Zayed MA, Massry SG. Effect of chronic renal failure with and without secondary hyperparathyroidism on the activities of synaptosomal tyrosine hydroxylase and monoamine oxidase. Nephron 1992;61:32–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Ali F, Tayeh O, Attallah A. Plasma and brain catecholamines in experimental uremia: Acute and chronic studies. Life Sci 1985;37:1757–64.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Ni Z, Smogorzewski M, Massry SG. Derangements in acetylcholine metabolism in brain synaptosomes in chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 1993;44:630–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. DeFeudis FV. Central cholinergic system and behaviour. London: Academic Press, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Lalley PM, Rossi GV, Baker WW. Analysis of local cholinergic tremor mechanisms following selective neurochemical lesions. Exp Neurol 1970;27:258–75.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Yeagle PL. The membranes of cells. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Islam A, Smogorzewski M, Massry SG. Effect of chronic renal failure and parathyroid hormone on phospholipid content of brain synaptosomes. Am J Physiol 1989;256:F705–10.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Islam A, Smogorzewski M, Massry SG. Effect of verapamil on CRF-induced abnormalities in phospholipid contents of brain synaptosomes. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1990;194:16–20.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Bogdanski DF. Mechanisms of transport for the uptake and release of biogenic amines in nerve endings. Adv Exp Med Biol 1976;69:291–305.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Berridge MJ. Cell signaling through phospholipid metabolism. J Cell Sci 1986;4(suppl): 137–53.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Ratner DP, Adams KM, Levin NW, Rourke BP. Effects of hemodialysis on cognitive and sensorimotor functioning of the adult chronic hemodialysis patient. J Behav Med 1983;6:291–311.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Marsh JT, Brown WS, Wolcott D, Carr CR, Harper R, Schweitzer SV, et al. HuEPO treatment improves brain and cognitive function of anemic dialysis patients. Kidney Int 1991;39:155–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Berner YN, Shike M. Consequences of phosphate imbalance. Ann Rev Nutr 1988;8:121–48.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Massry SG, Fadda GZ, Perna AF, Kiersztejn M, Smogorzewski M. Mechanism of organ dysfunction in phosphate depletion: critical role for rise in cytosolic calcium. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1992; 18: 133–40.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Massry SG, Hajjar SM, Koureta P, Fadda GZ, Smogorzewski M. Phosphate depletion increases cytosolic calcium of brain synaptosomes. Am J Physiol 1991;260:F12–18.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Rios T, Smogorzewski M, Ni Z, Levi E, Massry SG. Sequence of appearance of the metabolic derangements in rat brain synaptosomes during phosphate depletion. Nephron 1994;67:54–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Smogorzewski M, Islam A, Koureta P, Fadda GZ, Massry SG. Reduced phospholipid contents of brain synaptosomes in phosphate depletion. Am J Physiol 1991;261:E742–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Smogorzewski M, Isla A, Koureta P, Massry SG. Abnormal norepinephrine metabolism in rat brain synaptosomes in phosphate depletion. Am J Nephrol 1993;13:43–52.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Brautbar N, Tabernero-Romo J, Coats JC, Massry SG. Impaired myocardial lipid metabolism in phosphate depletion. Kidney Int 1984;26:18–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Levi M, Jameson DM, Van Der Meer BW. Role of BBM lipid composition and fluidity in impaired renal Pi transport in aged rat. Am J Physiol 1989;256:F85–94.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Molitoris BA, Alfrey AC, Harris RA, Simon FR. Renal apical membrane cholesterol and fluidity in regulation of phosphate transport. Am J Physiol 1985;24:F 12–19.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Hartman H, Eckert A, Muller W. Disturbances of the neuronal calcium homeostasis in the aging nervous system. Life Science 1994;55:2011–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Landfield P, Thibault O, Mazzanti M, Porter N, Kerr D. Mechanisms of neuronal death in brain aging and Alzheimer’s disease; role of endocrine-mediated calcium dyshomeostasis. J Neurobiol 1992;23:1247–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Missiaen L, Robberecht W, van de Bosch L, Callewaert G, et al. Abnormal intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis and disease. Cell Calcium 2000;28:1–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Pascale A, Etcheberrigaray R. Calcium alteration in Alzheimer’s disease: pathophysiology, models and therapeutic opportunities. Pharmacological Res 1999;2:81–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Cotter RL, Burke WJ, Thomas VS, Potter J, Zheng J, Gendelman HE. Insight into the neurodegenerative process of Alzheimer’s disease: role of mononuclear phagocyte-associated inflammation and neurotoxicity. J Leukoc Biol 1999;65:416–27.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Paschen W, Doutheil J. Disturbances of the functioning of endoplasmic reticulum: A key mechanism underlying neuronal cell injury? J Cerebral Blood Flow and Met 1999;19:1–18.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Coon AL, Wallace DR, Mactutus CF, Booze RM. L-type calcium channels in the hippocampus and cerebellum of Alzheimer’s disease brain tissue. Neurobiol Aging 1999;20:597–603.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. De Jonge MC, Traber J. Nimodipine: cognition, aging and degeneration. Clin Neuropharmacol 1993;16:S25–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Tollefson GD. Short-term effects of the calcium channel blocker nimodipine (Bay-e-9736) in the management of primary degenerative dementia. Biol Psychiatry 1990;27:1133–42.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Dirnagl U, Iadecola C, Moskowita MA. Pathobiology of ischemic stroke: an integrated view. Trends Neurosci 1999;22:391–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Mattson MP, Culmose C, Zai FY. Apoptotic and antiapoptotic mechanisms in stroke. Cell Tissue Res 2000;301:173–87.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Pazos-Trillo G, Everall IP. From human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection of the brain to dementia. Genitourinary Med 1997;73:343–7.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Lipton SA. Neuronal injury associated with HIV-1: Approaches to treatment. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1998;38:159–77.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Haughey NJ, Holden CP, Nath A, Geiger JD. Involvement of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate-regulated stores of intracellular calcium and calcium dysregulation and neuronal cell death caused by HIV-1 protein Tat. J Neurochemistry 1999;73:1363–74.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. M. Smogorzewski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka City University Medical School, 1-4-3 Asahi-machi, 545-8585, Abeno-ku Osaka, Japan

    Hirotoshi Morii MD, PhD (Professor Emeritus) & Yoshiki Nishizawa MD, PhD (Professor Emeritus) & 

  2. Division of Nephrololgy Raulston Memorial Research Building, Room 104 Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, 2025 Zonal Avenue, 90033, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Shaul G. Massry MD (Professor of Medicine) (Professor of Medicine)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2002 Springer-Verlag London Limited

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Smogorzewski, M. (2002). Central Nervous System. In: Morii, H., Nishizawa, Y., Massry, S.G. (eds) Calcium in Internal Medicine. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-0667-8_25

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-0667-8_25

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-1173-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-0667-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation