Abstract
In this chapter, we consider the applications of sound signals with frequencies less than 500 Hz. The use of such low frequencies is primarily motivated by the strong attenuation of acoustic waves in shallow water due to the interaction with the bottom. For example, for a negative gradient sound speed profile, the transmission loss of acoustic signals (TL) where \( {{(TL}} = 20\lg (\bar{p}{/}{p_0}) \) can be desibed in the following equation by the three terms inside square brackets, each corresponding to different decay laws for the sound field with distance
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
In experiments, \( \bar{p} \) is defined as \( \bar{p} = \left\langle {\left| {p(\vec{R},t)} \right|} \right\rangle \), where the angle brackets denote averaging over a spatial interval greater than the period of the interference pulsations, and over a time greater than the period of oscillation.
- 2.
The emission level of 190 dB corresponds to the acoustic power (\( {W_0} = 100\,{{W}} \)) of typical nondirectional low-frequency sound sources, used in experiments on acoustic tomography of the ocean.
- 3.
The parameters of the sound source used in the ATOC Program are given in the third line of the table.
- 4.
It should be noted that in the case of sound sources with piezotransducers, the efficiency commonly taken is not the acousto-electric efficiency, but a somewhat smaller quantity χ a/e determined as χ a/e = W 0/i 2|z e|, where i is the current through the transducer and z e is the total electric resistance including the active and reactive components.
- 5.
For typical explosive sound sources (where the mass of the explosive material is a few hundred grams), this dependence occurs over a distance of several hundred meters. For large distances p 0 and t 0 are time independent and the equation of linear acoustics holds.
- 6.
It is necessary to note that in the absence of a spring the radiation frequency depends on air pressure in the chamber and, therefore, the depth of the source submersion.
- 7.
In the case of air guns, the variation of the radiation directivity is performed by introducing corresponding time delays.
- 8.
Notice that factor N r depends on the conversion ratio of sound pressure to electrical signal at the output of each receiver. It may vary within wide limits.
- 9.
It should be noted that in acoustic experiments in the shallow water, such a system is as a rule installed at all devices of real-time data acquisition and processing.
- 10.
These displacements are often associated with internal waves.
References
Apel J.R., Badiey M., Berson J. et al. (1997) An overview of the 1995 SWARM shallow-water internal wave acoustic scattering experiment. IEEE J. Oceanic Eng. V.22(3), pp. 465–500.
Arons A.B. (1948), Secondary pressure pulses due to gas globe oscillation in underwater explosions: II. Selection of adiabatic parameters in the theory of oscillation. [J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 20, p. 277]
Barger J. E., Hamblen W. R. (1980) The air gun impulsive underwater transducer. [J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 68 (4), pp. 1038–1045]
Bogolyubov B. N., Ostrovsky L. A., Okomelkov A. A., Slavinsky M. M. (1986) On resonant acoustic monopoles interaction. [Sov. Phys. Acoust. Vol. 32(1), pp. 15–21]
Bogolyubov B. N., Burlakova I. B., Dubovoy Yu. A., Marysev A. P., Farfel V. A. (2000) Low-frequency radiating complexes for hydro-acoustical monitoring of the ocean. [Proceeding of the U.S. – Russia workshop on experimental underwater acoustics. Nizhny Novgorod, pp. 48–60]
Bulatov M. G., Kravtsov Yu. A., Lavrova O. Yu., Litovchenko K. Ts., Mityagina M. I., Raev M. D., Sabinin K. D., Trohimovskii Yu. G., Churyumov A. N., Shugan I. V. (2003) Physical mechanisms of the aerospace radar imaging of the ocean [Physics-Uspekhi, Vol. 46(1), pp 63–79]
Bunkin F.V., Vavilin A.V., Zhuravlev V.A., Kozel’skii A.R., Kravtsov Yu.A., Kuz’kin V.M., Kulapin L.G., Lyubchenko A.Yu., Omel’chenko N.N., Petnikov V.G., Sabirov O.I., Slavinskii M.M., Khudiev L.T. (1984) Investigation of bottom propagation of acoustic signals with highly stable [Izvestyia, Atmospheric and Ocean Physics, Vol. 20(2), pp. 159– 161]
Chen C.T., Millero F.J. (1977) Sound speed of seawater at high pressures. [J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 62(3), pp. 1129–1135]
Donskoy D. M., Blue J. E. (1994) A new concept of a low-frequency underwater sound source [J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 95(4), pp. 1977–1982]
Fokin V. N., Fokina M. S. (2003) Estimation of sea bottom parameters from angle-frequency resonances of the reflection coefficient. [Acoust. Phys., Vol. 49(5), pp. 584–591]
Henriques T.A., Young A.M. (1980) The Helmholtz resonator as high-power deep-submergence source for frequencies below 500 Hz. [J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 67(5), pp. 2330–2342]
Koniaev K.V., Sabinin K.D. (1973) New data concerning internal waves in the sea obtained using distributed temperature sensors. [Transaction (Doklady) of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Vol. 209(1), pp. 86–89.
Korotin P.I., Salin B.M., Chashchin A.S., Tsiberev A.V. (2000) Marine autonomous system for acoustic measurement. [Proceeding of the U.S. – Russia workshop on experimental underwater acoustics. Nizhny Novgorod, pp. 114–154]
Kravtsov Yu.A., Orlov Yu.I. (1990) Geometrical optics of inhomogeneous media [Springer-Verlag]
Lee J. B. (1974) Low-frequency resonant-tube projector for underwater sound. [IEEE International conference on engineering in the ocean environment. Halifax, Vol. 2, pp. 10–15]
Miller J.H., Ching-Sang Chiu, Lynch J.F. (1993) Signal processing for coastal acoustic tomography [Proceedings of the International Conference on Theoretical and Computational Acoustics, Mustique]
Millero F.J., Xu Li. (1994) Comments on “On equations for the speed of sound in seawater” [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 93,255–275 (1993)]. [J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 95(5), pp. 2757–2759]
Morozov A.K., Webb D.C. (2003) A sound projector for acoustic tomography and global ocean monitoring. [IEEE J. Oceanic Eng., Vol. 28(2), pp. 174–185].
Munk W.H., Spindel R.C., Baggeroer A., Birdsall T.G. (1994). The Heard Island feasibility test [J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 96(4), pp. 2330–2342]
Nechaev A.G., Khilko A.I. (1987) Reconstruction of oceanic inhomogeneities along an acoustic track by the differential diagnostics method. [Preprint No. 178, Institute of Applied Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences (in Russian)]
Penkin S. I. (2001) Development of subsonic radiators and their use in technical systems for ocean acoustic tomography. [Marine technology. Ed. Acad. M.D.Ageev. Iss.4. Vladivostok: Dalnauka, pp. 149–166.] (in Russian)
Rimsky-Korsakov A. V., Yamshikov V. S., Zhulin V. I., Rehtman V. I. (1984) Subsea acoustic low frequency sources. [Sudostroenie] (in Russian)
Rutenko A. N. (1998) The Vertical Hydroacoustic Array “Mollyusk-97” [Instruments and Experimental Techniques, Vol. 41(5), pp. 723–726.]
Serebryany A. N. (2003) Experience of study of processes in coastal zone of the sea by means of acoustic Doppler current profiler.
Sherman C. H., Butler J. L. (2007) Transducers and Arrays for underwater Sound [Springer, 2007, 610p.]
Sims C. C. (1960) Bubble transducer for radiating high-power low-frequency sound in water. [J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 32(10), pp. 1305–1308]
Tolstoy A,. Chapman N. R,. Brooke G. H (1998) Benchmarking geoacoustic inversion methods. [J. Comput. Acoust. V.6, pp. 1–28].
Urick R.J. (1975) Principles of underwater sound [New York, McGraw-Hill, 384p]
Vadov R.A. (1994) Characteristics of underwater explosions sound sources characteristics [Acoust. Phys. Vol. 40(4), pp. 600–602]
Webb D.C., Simonetti P.J., Jones C.P. (2001) SLOCUM: An underwater glider propelled by environmental energy. [IEEE J. Oceanic Eng., V.26(4), pp. 447–452]
Weston D.E. (1963) Underwater explosions as acoustic sources. [In: V.M. Albers (ed) Underwater Acoustics, Proc. of a NATO-sponsored Institute, 31 July to 11 August 1961. New York: Plenum Press.]
Weston D.E. (1965) Explosive sound sources. In: Underwater Acoustics (translated from the English, (ed) L.M. Brekhovskikh Moscow Mir] (in Russian)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Katsnelson, B., Petnikov, V., Lynch, J. (2012). Equipment for Shallow Water Acoustics and Experimental Considerations. In: Fundamentals of Shallow Water Acoustics. The Underwater Acoustics Series. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9777-7_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9777-7_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-9776-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-9777-7
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)