Abstract
An important component of ecological assessments is the ability to predict and display changes in ecosystem structure and function over a variety of spatial and temporal scales. These changes can occur over short (less than 1 year) or long time frames (over 100 years). Models may emphasize structural responses (changes in species composition, growth forms, canopy height, amount of old growth, etc.) or functional responses (cycling of carbon, nutrients, and water). Both are needed to display changes in ecosystem components for use in robust ecological assessments. Structure and function models vary in the ecosystem components included, algorithms employed, level of detail, and spatial and temporal scales incorporated. They range from models that track individual organisms to models of broad-scale landscape changes. This chapter describes models appropriate for ecological assessments. The models selected for inclusion can be implemented in a spatial framework and for the most part have been run in more than one system. Model assumptions, advantages, limitations, and applications are discussed, and model features are summarized in Table 18.1.
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aber, J. D.; Melillo, J. M. 1982. FORTNITE: a computer model of organic matter and nitrogen dynamics in forest ecosystems.Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Research Bulletin #R3130.
Acevedo, M. F.; Urban, D. L.; Ablan, M. 1996. Landscape scale forest dynamics: GIS, gap, and transition models. In: Goodchild, M. F.; Steyaert, L. T.; Parks, B. O., eds. GIS and environmental modeling: progress and research issues.Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Books: 181–185.
Allen, T. F. H.; Starr, T. B. 1982. Hierarchy: perspectives for ecological complexity.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Baker, W. L. 1989a. A review of models of landscape change. Landscape Ecol.2:111–133.
Baker, W. L. 1989b. Landscape ecology and nature reserve design in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, Minnesota. Ecology70:23–35.
Band, L. E. 1989. A terrain based watershed information system. Hydrol. Process.3:151–162.
Band, L. E. 1991. Distributed parameterization of complex terrain. Surv. Geophys.12:249–270.
Band, L. E.; Wood, E. F. 1988. Strategies for large-scale, distributed hydrologic simulation. Appl. Math. Cornput. 27:23–37.
Band, L. E.; Patterson, P.; Nemani, R.; Running, S. W. 1993. Forest ecosystem processes at the watershed scale: incorporating hillslope hydrology. Agr. Forest Meteorol.63:93–126.
Baron, J.; Ojima, D. S.; Holland, E. A.; Parton, W. J. 1994. Analysis of nitrogen saturation potential in Rocky Mountain tundra and forest: implications for aquatic systems. Bio geochemistry27:61–82.
Baron, J. S.; Hartman, M. D.; Band, L. E.; Lammers, R. L. 1998a. Sensitivity of high elevation Rocky Mountain watersheds to climate change. Proceedings of the fifth national watershed coalition annual meeting, May 1997. Reno, NV: 269–273.
Baron, J. S.; Hartman, M. D.; Kittel, T. G. F.; Band, L. E.; Ojima, D. S.; Lammers, R. B. 1998b. Effects of land cover, water redistribution, and temperature on ecosystem processes in the South Platte Basin. Ecol. Appl.8:1037-1051.
Bart, J. 1995. Acceptance criteria for using individualbased models to make management decisions. Ecol. Appl.5:411–420.
Beven, K. J.; Kirkby, M. J. 1979. A physically-based, variable contributing area model of basin hydrology. Hydrolog. Soc. Bull.24:43–69.
Bonan, G. B. 1989a. A computer model of the solar radiation, soil moisture, and soil thermal regimes in boreal forests. Ecol. Model.45:275–306.
Bonan, G. B. 1989b. Environmental factors and ecological processes controlling vegetation patterns in boreal forests. Landscape Ecol.3:111–130.
Bonan, G. B. 1990a. Carbon and nitrogen cycling in North American boreal forests. I. litter quality and soil thermal effects in interior Alaska. Biogeochemistry 10:1–28.
Bonan, G. B. 1990b. Carbon and nitrogen cycling in North American boreal forests. II. biogeographic patterns. Can. J. For. Res.20:1077–1088.
Botkin, D. B. 1992. The ecology of forests: theory and evidence.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Botkin, D. B.; Janak, J. F.; Wallis, J. R. 1972. Some ecological consequences of a computer model of forest growth. J. Ecol.60:849–872.
Bugmann, H. K. M.; Fischlin, A. 1996. Simulating forest dynamics in a complex topography using gridded climatic data. Climatic Change34:201–211.
Bugmann, H. K. M.; Yan, X.; Sykes, M. T.; Martin, P.; Lindner, M.; Desanker, P. V.; Cumming, S. G. 1996. A comparison of forest gap models: model structure and behavior. Climatic Change34:289–313.
Burke, I. C.; Kittel, T. G. F.; Lauenroth, W. K.; Snook, P.; Yonker, C. M.; Parton, W. J. 1991. Regional analysis of the Central Great Plains: sensitivity to climate variability. BioScience41:685–692.
Childress, W. M.; Rykiel, Jr., E. J.; Forsythe, W.; Li, B. L.; Wu, H. 1996. Transition rule complexity in grid-based automata models. Landscape Ecol.11:257–266.
Coffin, D. P.; Lauenroth, W. K. 1990. A gap dynamics simulation model of succession in a semiarid grassland. Ecol. Model.49:229–266.
Coffin, D. P.; Lauenroth, W. K. 1996. Transient responses of North-American grasslands to changes in climate. Climatic Change34:269–278.
Cole, C. V.; Paustian, K.; Elliott, E. T.; Metherell, A. L.; Ojima, D. S.; Parton, W. J. 1993. Analysis of agroecosystem carbon pools. Water Air Soil Pollut.70: 357–371.
Costanza, R.; Sklar, F. H.; White, M. L. 1990. Modeling coastal landscape dynamics. BioScience40:91–107.
Creed, I. F.; Band, L. E.; Foster, N. W.; Morrison, I. K.; Nicolson, J. A.; Semkin, R. S.; Jeffries, D. S. 1996. Regulation of nitrate-N release from temperate forests: a test of the N flushing hypothesis. Water Resour. Res. 32:3337–3354.
Dale, V. H.; Shugart, H. H. 1985. A comparison of tree growth models. Ecol. Model.29:145–169.
Dale, V. H.; Hemstrom, M.; Franklin, J. 1986. Modeling the long-term effects of disturbances on forest succession, Olympic Peninsula, Washington. Can. J. For. Res.16:56–67.
Dale, V. H.; Gardner, R. H.; DeAngelis, D. L.; Eagar, C. C.; Webb, J. W. 1991. Elevation-mediated effects of balsam woolly adelgid on southern Appalachian spruce-fir forests. Can. J. For. Res.21:1639–1648.
Daly, C.; Bachelet, D.; Lenihan, J.; Neilson, R. P.; Parton, W. J.; Ojima, D. 2000. Dynamic simulation of tree-grass interactions for global change studies. Ecol. Appl.10:449–469.
Donner, B. L.; Running, S. W. 1986. Water stress response after thinning Pinus contorta stands in Montana. For. Sci.32:614–625.
Dunning, J. B., Jr.; Stewart, D. J.; Danielson, B. J.; Noon, B. R.; Root, T. L.; Lamberson, R. H.; Stevens, E. E. 1995. Spatially explicit population models: current forms and future uses. Ecol. Appl.5:3–11.
Friend, A. D.; Shugart, H. H.; Running, S. W. 1993. A physiology-based gap model of forest dynamics. Ecology 74:792–797.
Ginsberg, R. B. 1971. Semi-Markov processes and mobility. J. Math. Soc.1:233–262.
Ginsberg, R. B. 1972. Critique of probabilistic models: application of the semi-Markov model to migration. J. Math. Soc.2:83–103.
Grant, W. E. 1988. Models for conservation and wildlife management. Ecol. Model.41:325–326.
Green, D. G. 1989. Simulated effects of fire, dispersal, and spatial pattern on competition within forest mosaics. Vegetado82:139–153.
Hall, F. G.; Strebel, D. E.; Sellers, P. J. 1988. Linking knowledge among spatial and temporal scales: vegetation, atmosphere, climate and remote sensing. Landscape Ecol.2:3–22.
Hansen, A. J.; Garman, S. L.; Weigand, J. F.; Urban, D. L.; McComb, W. C.; Raphael, M. G. 1995. Alternative silvicultural regimes in the Pacific Northwest: simulations of ecological and economic effects. Ecol. Appl.5:535–554.
He, H. S.; Mladenoff, D. J. 1999. Dynamics of fire disturbance and succession on a heterogeneous forest landscape: a spatially explicit and stochastic simulation approach. Ecology80:81–99.
Henderson, W.; Wilkins, C. W. 1975. The interaction of bushfires and vegetation. Search6:130–133.
Holland, E. A.; Parton, W. J.; Detling, J. K.; Coppock, D. L. 1992. Physiological responses of plant populations to herbivory and their consequences for ecosystem nutrient flow. Amer. Naturalist140:685–706.
Holt, R. D.; Pacala, S. W.; Smith, T. W.; Liu, J. 1995. Linking contemporary vegetation models with spatially explicit animal population models. Ecol. Appl. 5:20–27.
Humphries, H. C.; Coffin, D. P.; Lauenroth, W. K. 1996. An individual-based model of alpine plant distributions. Ecol. Model.84:99–126.
Hunsaker, C. T.; Nisbet, R. A.; Lam, D. C. L.; Browder, J. A.; Baker, W. L.; Turner, M. G.; Botkin, D. B. 1993. Spatial models of ecological systems and processes: the role of GIS. In: Goodchild, M. F.; Parks, B. O.; Steyaert, L. T., eds. Environmental modeling with GIS. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press: 248–264.
Hunt, E. R., Jr.; Running, S. W. 1992. Simulated dry matter yields for aspen and spruce stands in North American boreal forest. Can. J. Remote Sens.18:126–133.
Hunt, E. R., Jr.; Piper, S. C.; Nemani, R.; Keeling, C. D.; Otto, R. D.; Running, S. W. 1996. Global net carbon exchange and intra-annual atmospheric CO2 concentrations predicted by an ecosystem process model and three-dimensional atmospheric transport model. Global Biogeochem. Cycle.10:431–456.
Keane, R. E.; Arno, S. F.; Brown, J. K. 1989. FIRE-SUM—an ecological process model for fire succession in western conifer forests.Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-266. Ogden, UT: U.S. Dept. Agric., For. Serv., Intermountain Res. Sta.
Keane, R. E.; Arno, S. F.; Brown, J. K. 1990a. Simulating cumulative fire effects in ponderosa pine/Douglasfir forests. Ecology71:189.
Keane, R. E.; Arno, S. F.; Brown, J. K.; Tomback, D. F. 1990b. Modelling stand dynamics in whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) forests. Ecol. Model.51:73–95.
Keane, R. E.; Long, D. G.; Menakis, J. P.; Hann, W. J.; Bevins, C. D. 1996a. Simulating coarse-scale vegetation dynamics using the Columbia River basin succession model—CRBSUM.INT-GTR-340. Ogden, UT: U.S. Dept. Agric., For. Serv., Intermountain For. and Range Exp. Sta.
Keane, R. E.; Morgan, P.; Running, S. W. 1996b. FIRE-BGC—a mechanistic ecological process model for simulating fire succession on coniferous forest landscapes of the Northern Rocky Mountains.INT-RP-484. Ogden, UT: U.S. Dept. Agric., For. Serv., Intermountain Res. Sta.
Kessell, S. R. 1976. Gradient modeling: a new approach to fire modeling and wilderness resource management. Environ. Manage.1:39–48.
Kessell, S. R. 1977. Gradient modeling: a new approach to fire modeling and resource management. In: Hall, C. A. S.; Day, Jr., D. W., eds. Ecosystem modeling in theory and practice: an introduction with case histories. New York: John Wiley & Sons: 575–605.
Kessell, S.R. 1979. Phytosociological inference and resource management. Environ. Manage.3:29–40.
Kessell, S. R. 1990. An Australian geographical information and modeling system for natural area management. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Syst.4:333–362.
Kessell, S. R.; Cattelino, P. J. 1978. Evaluation of a fire behavior information integration system for southern California chaparral wildlands. Environ. Manage.2:135–159.
Kessell, S. R.; Fischer, W. C. 1981. Predicting postfire plant succession for fire management planning.INT-GTR-94. Ogden, UT: U.S. Dept. Agric., For. Serv., Intermountain For. Range Exp. Sta.
Kessell, S. R.; Good, R. B. 1982. PREPLAN (Pristine Environment Planning Language and Simulator) user’s guide for Kosciusko National Park. Sydney: National Parks and Wildlife Service of New South Wales, Special Publication.
Kessell, S. R., Good, R. B.; Hopkins, A. J. M. 1984. Implementation of two new resource management information systems in Australia. Environ. Manage.8: 251–270.
Korol, R. L.; Running, S. W.; Milner, K. S.; Hunt, Jr., E. R. 1991. Testing a mechanistic carbon balance model against observed tree growth. Can. J. For. Res. 21:1098–1105.
Kremer, R. G. 1991. Simulating forest response to air pollution: integrating physiological responses to sulphur dioxide with climate-dependent growth processes. Ecol. Model.54:111–126.
Lammers, R. B.; Band, L. E.; Tague, C. L. 1997. Scaling behaviour of watershed processes. In: van Gardingen, P.; Foody, G.; Curran, P., eds. Scaling up from cell to landscape.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 295–317.
Lenihan, J. M.; Daly, C.; Bachelet, D.; Neilson, R. P. 1998. Simulating broad scale fire severity in a dynamic global vegetation model. Northwest Sci.72:91–103.
Liu, J. 1992. ECOLECON: a spatially-explicit model for ecological economics of species conservation in complex forest landscapes.Dissertation. Athens: University of Georgia.
Liu, J. 1993. ECOLECON: an ECOLogical-ECONomic model for species conservation in complex forest landscapes. Ecol. Model.70:63–87.
Lyon, D.; Monz, C. A.; Brown, R.; Metherell, A. K. 1995. Soil organic matter changes over two decades of winter wheat-fallow cropping in western Nebraska. In: Paul, E. A.; Cole, C. V., eds. Soil organic matter in temperate agricultural ecosystems: a site network approach.Chelsea, UK: Lewis Publishers.
Marsden, M. A. 1983. Modeling the effect of wildfire frequency on forest structure and succession in the northern Rocky Mountains. J. Environ. Manage.16: 45–62.
McKelvey; K. B.; Noon, B. R.; Lamberson, R. H. 1992. Conservation planning for species occupying fragmented landscapes: the case of the northern spotted owl. In: Kareiva, P. M.; Kingsolver, J. G.; Huey, R. B., eds. Biotic interactions and global change.Boston: Sinauer: 424–450.
McLeod, S. D.; Running, S. W. 1988. Comparing site quality indices and productivity in ponderosa pine stands of western Montana. Can. J. For. Res.18:346–352.
Metherell, A. K.; Harding, L. A.; Cole, C. V.; Parton, W. J. 1993. CENTURY soil organic matter model environment, technical documentation, agroecosystem version 4.0.Unit Technical Report No. 4. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Dept. Agric., Agric. Res. Serv.; Great Plains System Res.
Metherell, A. K.; Gambardella, C. A.; Parton, W. J.; Peterson, G. A.; Harding, L. A.; Cole, C. V. 1995. Simulation of soil organic matter dynamics in dryland wheat-fallow cropping systems. In: Lal, R., Kimball, J.; Levine, E.; Stewart, B. A., eds. Soil management and greenhouse effect.Boca Raton: CRC Press: 259–270.
Mladenoff, D. J.; He, H. S. 1999. Design, behavior and application of LANDIS, an object-oriented model of forest landscape disturbance and succession. In: Mladenoff, D. J.; Baker, W. L., eds. Advances in spatial modeling of forest landscape change: approaches and applications. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 125–162.
Mladenoff, D. J.; Host, G. E.; Boeder, J.; Crow, T. R. 1996. LANDIS: a spatial model of forest landscape disturbance, succession, and management. In: Good-child, M. F.; Steyaert, L. T.; Parks, B. O., eds. GIS and environmental modeling: progress and research issues.Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Books: 175–179.
Neilson, R. P. 1995. A model for predicting continental-scale vegetation distribution and water balance. Ecol. Appl.5:362–385.
Neilson, R. P.; Marks, D. 1994. A global perspective of regional vegetation and hydrologie sensitivities and risks from climatic change. J. Veg. Sci.5:715–730.
Nemani, R.; Running, S. W. 1989. Testing a theoretical climate-soil-leaf area hydrologie equilibrium of forests using satellite data and ecosystem simulation. Agr. Forest Meteorol.44:245–294.
Nemani R; Pierce, R.; Band, L. E.; Running, S. W. 1991. Forest ecosystem processes at the watershed scale: sensitivity to remotely sensed leaf area index observations. Int. J. Remote Sens.14:2519–2534.
Nemani, R.; Running, S. W.; Band, L. E.; Peterson, D. L. 1993. Regional hydroecological simulation system: an illustration of the integration of ecosystem models in a GIS. In: Goodchild, M. F.; Parks, B. O.; Steyaart, L. T., eds. Environmental modeling with GIS. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press: 296–304.
Ojima, D. S.; Schimel, D. S.; Parton, W. J.; Owensby, C. E. 1994. Long-and short-term effects of fire on nitrogen cycling in tallgrass prairie. Biogeochemistry 24:67–84.
Olson, J. S.; Watts, J. A.; Allison, L. J. 1983. Carbon in live vegetation of major world ecosystems.ORNL-5862. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge Natl. Lab.
Parton, W. J.; Schimel, D. S.; Cole, C. V.; Ojima, D. S. 1987. Analysis of factors controlling soil organic matter levels in Great Plains grasslands. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J.51:1173–1179.
Parton, W. J.; Stewart, J. W. B.; Cole, C. V. 1988. Dynamics of C, N, P, and S in grassland soils: a model. Biogeochemistry5:109–131.
Parton, W. J.; Schimel, D. S.; Ojima, D. S. 1994. Environmental change in grasslands: assessment using models. Climate Change28:111–141.
Pastor, J.; Post, W. M. 1986. Influences of climate, soil moisture, and succession on forest carbon and nitrogen cycles. Biogeochemistry2:3–27.
Pastor, J.; Bonde, J.; Johnston, C.; Naiman, R. J. 1993. Markovian analysis of the spatially dependent dynamics of beaver ponds. Lectures Math. Life Sci. 23:5–27.
Paustian, K.; Andren, O.; Clarholm, M.; Hansson, A. C.; Johansson, G.; Lagerlof, J.; Lindberg, T.; Pettersson, R.; Sohlenius, B. 1990. Carbon and nitrogen budgets of four agro-ecosystems with annual and perennial crops, with and without N fertilization. J. Appl. Ecol. 27:60–84.
Pielke, R. A.; Cotton, W. R.; Walko, R. L.; Tremback, C. J.; Lyons, W. A.; Grasso, L. D.; Nichols, M. E.; Moran, M. D.; Wesley, D. A.; Lee, T. J.; Copeland, J. H. 1992. A comprehensive meteorological modeling system—RAMS. Meteorol. Atmos. Phys.49:69–91.
Potter; M. W.; Kessell, S. R.; Cattelino, P. J. 1979. FOR-PLAN: a forest planning language and simulator. Environ. Manage.3:59–72.
Prentice, I. C.; Cramer, W.; Harrison, S. P.; Leemans, R.; Monserud, R. A.; Solomon, A. M. 1992. A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate. J. Biogeography 19:117–134.
Pulliam, H. R.; Dunning, Jr., J. B.; Liu, J. 1992. Population dynamics in complex landscapes: a case study. Ecol. Appl.2:165–177.
Rasmussen, P. E.; Parton, W. J. 1994. Long-term effects of residue management in wheat/fallow: I. inputs, yield, and soil organic matter. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 58:523–530.
Roberts, D. W. 1996a. Landscape vegetation modelling with vital attributes and fuzzy systems theory. Ecol. Model.90:175–184.
Roberts, D. W. 1996b. Modelling forest dynamics with vital attributes and fuzzy systems theory. Ecol. Model. 90:161–173.
Running, S.W.; Coughlan, J. C. 1988. A general model of forest ecosystem processes for regional application. Ecol. Model.42:125–154.
Running, S. W.; Gower, S. T. 1991. FOREST-BGC, a general model of forest ecosystem processes for regional applications. II. dynamic carbon allocation and nitrogen budgets. Tree Physiol. 9:147–160.
Running, S. W.; Hunt, Jr., E. R.1993. Generalization of a forest ecosystem process model for other biomes, BIOME-BGC, and an application for global-scale models. In: Ehleringer, J. R.; Field, C, eds. Scaling physiological processes: leaf to globe.San Diego, CA: Academic Press: 141–158.
Running, S. W.; Nemani, R. R. 1991. Regional hydrologic and carbon balance responses of forests resulting from potential climate change. Climatic Change 19:349–368.
Running, S. W.; Nemani, R. R.; Hungerford, R. D. 1987. Extrapolation of synoptic meteorological data in mountainous terrain, and its use for simulating forest evapotranspiration and photosynthesis. Can. J. For. Res.17:472–483.
Running, S. W.; Nemani, R. R.; Peterson, D. L.; Band, L. E.; Potts, D. F.; Pierce, L. L.; Spanner, M. A. 1989. Mapping regional forest evapotranspiration and photosynthesis by coupling satellite data with ecosystem simulation. Ecology70:1090–1101.
Sanford, R. L., Jr.; Parton, W. J.; Ojima, D. S.; Lodge, D. J. 1991. Hurricane effects on soil organic matter dynamics and forest production in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico: results of simulation modeling. Biotropica23:364–372.
Schimel, D. S.; Parton, W. J.; Kittel, T. G. F.; Ojima, D. S.; Cole, C. V. 1990. Grassland biogeochemistry: links to atmospheric processes. Climate Change17:13–25.
Schimel, D. S.; Kittel, T. G. F.; Parton, W. J. 1991. Terrestrial biogeochemical cycles: global interactions with the atmosphere and hydrology. Tellus43AB: 188–203.
Schimel, D. S.; Braswell, B. H.; Holland, E. A.; McKeown, R.; Ojima, D. S.; Painter, T. H.; Parton, W. J.; Townsend, A. R. 1994. Climatic, edaphic, and biotic controls over storage and turnover of carbon in soils. Global Biogeochem. Cycle.8:279–293.
Schimel, D. S.; Braswell, B. H.; McKeown, R.; Ojima, D. S.; Parton, W. J.; Pulliam, W. 1996. Climate and nitrogen controls on geography and timescales of terrestrial biogeochemical cycling. Global Biogeochem. Cycle.10:677–692.
Shugart, H. H. 1984. A theory of forest dynamics: the ecological implications of forest succession models. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Shugart, H. H. 1998. Terrestrial ecosystems in changing environments.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Shugart, H. H.; Smith, T. M. 1996. A review of forest patch models and their application to global change research. Climatic Change34:131–153.
Sklar, F. H.; Costanza, R. 1986. A spatial simulation of ecosystem succession in a Louisiana Coastal landscape. In: Crosbie, R.; Luker, P., eds. Proceedings of the 1986 Summer Computer Simulation Conference, Society for Computer Simulation.San Diego, CA: 467–472.
Sklar, F. H.; Costanza, R. 1991. The development of dynamic spatial models for landscape ecology: a review and prognosis. In: Turner, M. G.; Gardner, R. H., eds. Quantitative methods in landscape ecology: the analysis and interpretation of environmental heterogeneity. New York: Springer-Verlag: 239–288.
Sklar, F. H.; Costanza, R.; Day, J. W. 1985. Dynamic spatial simulation modelling of coastal wetland habitat succession. Ecol. Model.29:261–281.
Smith, T. M.; Urban, D. L. 1988. Scale and resolution of forest structural pattern. Vegetado74:143–150.
Thiéry, J. M.; D’Herbès, J. M.; Valentin, C. 1995. A model simulating the genesis of banded vegetation patterns in Niger. J. Ecol.83:497–507.
Turner, M. G.; Dale, V. H. 1991. Modeling landscape disturbance. In: Turner, M. G.; Gardner, R. H., eds. Quantitative methods in landscape ecology: the analysis and interpretation of environmental heterogeneity. New York: Springer-Verlag: 323–351.
Turner, M. G.; Wu, Y.; Romme, W. H.; Wallace, L. L. 1993. A landscape simulation model of winter foraging by large ungulates. Ecol. Model.69:163–184.
Turner, M. G.; Wu, Y.; Wallace, L. L.; Romme, W. H.; Brenkert, A. 1994. Simulating winter interactions among ungulates, vegetation, and fire in northern Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. Appl.4:472–496.
Turner, M. G.; Arthaud, G. J.; Engstrom, R. T.; Hejl, S. J.; Liu, J.; Loeb, S.; McKelvey, K. 1995. Usefulness of spatially explicit population models in land management. Ecol. Appl.5:12–16.
Urban, D. L. 1990. A versatile model to simulate forest pattern: a user’s guide to ZELIG version 1.0.
Urban, D. L.; Shugart, H. H. 1992. Individual-based models of forest succession. In: Glenn-Lewin, D. C.; Peet, R. K.; Veblen, T. T. eds. Plant succession: theory and prediction.London: Chapman and Hall: 249–292.
Urban, D. L.; Smith, T. M. 1989. Extending individual-based forest models to simulate large-scale environmental patterns. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Amer.70:284.
Urban, D. L.; Bonan, G. B.; Smith, T. M; Shugart, H. H. 1991. Spatial applications of gap models. For. Ecol. Manage.42:95–110.
VEMAP Members. 1995. Vegetation/ecosystem modeling and analysis project: comparing biogeography and biogeochemistry models in a continental-scale study of terrestrial ecosystem responses to climate change and CO2 doubling. Global Biogeochem. Cycle.9: 407–437.
Watt, A. S. 1947. Pattern and process in the plant community. J. Ecol.35:1–22.
Wedin, D. A.; Tilman, D. 1996. Influence of nitrogen loading and species composition on the carbon balance of grasslands. Science274:1720–1723.
Weishampel, J. F.; Urban, D. L.; Smith, J. B.; Shugart, H. H. 1992. A comparison of semivariograms from a forest transect model and remotely sensed data. J. Veg. Sci.3:521–526.
Woolhouse, M. E. J.; Harmsen, R. 1987. A transition matrix model of seasonal changes in mite populations. Ecol. Model.37:167–189.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2001 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Humphries, H.C., Baron, J. (2001). Ecosystem Structure and Function Modeling. In: Jensen, M.E., Bourgeron, P.S. (eds) A Guidebook for Integrated Ecological Assessments. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8620-7_19
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8620-7_19
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-98583-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-8620-7
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive