Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Possible Identities

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Identity Theory and Research

Abstract

Possible identities are the positive and negative identities one might hold in the future. This chapter reviews what is known about the content and consequences of possible identities. Of particular interest are the implications of possible identities for identity-based motivation, current action in pursuit of identity-based goals. From a theoretical perspective, possible identities are important; they provide a goal post for current action and an interpretive lens for making sense of experience and so should influence both well-being and motivation. Surprisingly little is known about how and under which circumstances these consequences occur. This chapter addresses this gap. Key findings are threefold. First, possible identities differ with life phase, life transition, and life circumstance and intersect with other aspects of identity. Second, possible identities, and particularly negative possible identities, sometimes affect well-being. Similarly, possible identities are sometimes, but not always, implicated in current action. Research is beginning to address when and how possible identities matter. As outlined in the identity-based motivation model, connection, congruence, and interpretation of difficulty matter. If a possible identity feels connected to the current self and the actions needed to attain the future identity feel congruent with the current self, then people are more likely to interpret difficulties they encounter as meaning that the future identity is important rather than impossible to attain, and consequently to persist in their pursuit of this future identity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 259.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Allen, L., Woolfolk, R., Gara, M., & Apter, J. (1996). Possible selves in major depression. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184, 739–745.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amir, O., & Ariely, D. (2006, December 1). Resting on laurels: The effects of discrete progress markers on task performance and preferences. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=951144 (downloaded, August 8, 2007).

  • Anderman, E. M., Anderman, L. H., & Griesinger, T. (1999). Present and possible academic selves during early adolescence. Elementary School Journal, 100, 2–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anthis, K., Dunkel, C., & Anderson, B. (2004). Gender and identity status differences in late adolescents’ possible selves. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 147–152.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atance, C. (2008). Future thinking in young children. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 295–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, J. (1964). An introduction to motivation. Oxford: Van Nostrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 338–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banaji, M., & Prentice, D. (1994). The self in social contexts. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 297–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (2007). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New Jersey, NJ: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A., & Schunk, D. H. (1981). Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 586–598.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F. (1998). The self. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., pp. 680–740). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beal, S., & Crockett, L. (2010). Adolescent occupational and educational aspirations and expectations: Links to high school activities and adult educational attainment. Developmental Psychology, 46, 258–265.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. (1998). The self. New York: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Busseri, M. A., Choma, B. L., & Sadava, S. W. (2009). Functional or fantasy? Examining the implications of subjective temporal perspective “trajectories” for life satisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 295–308.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bybee, J., Luthar, S., Zigler, E., & Merisca, R. (1997). The fantasy, ideal, and ought selves: Content, relationships to mental health, and functions. Social Cognition, 15, 37–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, R., Wiebe, R., & Cleveland, H. (2006). The influence of future certainty and contextual factors on delinquent behavior and school adjustment among African American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 587–598.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, J. (1999). Social identity and the pursuit of possible selves: Implications for the psychological well-being of university students. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3, 179–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, P., Shepperd, A., & Arkin, R. (2009). Downward self revision: Erasing possible selves. Social Cognition, 27, 550–578.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C., Lawrence, J., & Scheier, M. (1999). Self-discrepancies and affect: Incorporating the role of feared selves. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 783–792.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C., & Scheier, M. (1982). Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality-social, clinical and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 111–135.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, W. (1903). The evolution of ideals. The Pedogical Seminary, 10, 101–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cinnirella, M. (1998). Exploring temporal aspects of social identity: The concept of possible social identities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28, 227–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cotter, V. T., & Gonzalez, E. W. (2009). Self-concept in older adults: An integrative review of empirical literature. Holistic Nursing Practice, 23, 335–348, PMID 19901608.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cross, S., & Markus, H. (1991). Possible selves across the lifespan. Human Development, 34, 230–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cross, S., & Markus, R. (1994). Self-schemas, possible selves, and competent performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 423–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Rathunde, K. (1993). The measurement of flow in everyday life: Toward a theory of emergent motivation. In J. J. Jacobs (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Developmental perspectives on motivation (Vol. 40, pp. 57–97). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curry, C., Trew, K., Turner, I., & Hunter, J. (1994). The effect of life domains on girls’ possible selves. Adolescence, 29, 133–150.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Darrah, E. M. (1898). A study of children’s ideals. Popular Science Monthly, 53, 88–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Destin, M., & Oyserman, D. (2009). From assets to school outcomes: How finances shape children’s perceived possibilities and intentions. Psychological Science, 20, 414–418.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Destin, M., & Oyserman, D. (2010). Incentivizing education: Seeing schoolwork as an investment, not a chore. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 846–849.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunkel, C. (2002). Possible selves as a mechanism for identity exploration. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 519–529.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A., Eastwick, P., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. (2009). Possible selves in marital roles: The impact of the anticipated division of labor on the mate preferences of women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 403–414.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elmore, K., & Oyserman, D. (in press). Gender in the classroom: An identity-based motivation approach. Contemporary Educational Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, S. (1973). The self-concept revisited: Or a theory of a theory. American Psychologist, 28, 404–414.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, M. (2007). The meaning of the future: Toward a more specific definition of possible selves. Review of General Psychology, 11, 348–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishbach, A., & Ferguson, M. (2007). The goal construct in social psychology. In A. Kruglanski & E. Higgins (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 490–515). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, S. T. (2008). Core social motivations: Views from the couch, consciousness, classroom, computers, and collectives. In J. Y. Shah & W. L. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of motivation science (pp. 3–22). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, L., Hooker, K., Johnson, P. M., & Kaus, C. R. (2000). Continuity and change in possible selves in later life: A 5-year longitudinal study. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 22, 235–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freer, P. (2009). ‘I’ll sing with my buddies’ – Fostering the possible selves of male choral singers. International Journal of Music Education, 27, 341–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freund, A., & Smith, J. (1999). Content and function of the self-definition in old and very old age. Journal of Gerontology. Psychological Sciences, 54B, 55–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fryberg, S., & Markus, H. (2003). On being American Indian: Current and possible selves. Self and Identity, 2, 325–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fryberg, S., Markus, H., Oyserman, D., & Stone, J. (2008). Of warrior chiefs and Indian princesses: The psychological consequences of American Indian mascots. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 30, 208–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493–503.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M., & Bayer, U. (1999). Deliberative versus implemental mindsets in the control of action. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 403–422). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M., & Moskowitz, G. B. (1996). Goal effects on action and cognition. In E. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 361–399). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonzales, M. H., Burgess, D. J., & Mobilio, L. J. (2001). The allure of bad plans: Implications of plan quality for progress toward best possible selves and post-planning energization. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 23, 87–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gramzow, R. H., Sedikides, C., Panter, A. T., & Insko, C. A. (2000). Aspects of self-regulation and self-structure as predictors of perceived emotional distress. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 188–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenstein, F. (1964). New light on changing American values: A forgotten body of survey data. Social Forces, 42, 441–450.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A., & Banaji, M. (1989). The self as a memory system: Powerful, but ordinary. Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 41–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, K., Botvin, G., Nichols, T., & Scheier, L. (2005). Low perceived chances for success in life and binge drinking among inner-city minority youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 34, 501–507.

    Google Scholar 

  • Havinghurst, R., & Macdonald, D. (1955). Development of the ideal self in New Zealand and American children. The Journal of Educational Research, 49, 263–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Havinghurst, R., Robinson, M., & Dorr, M. (1946). The development of the ideal self in childhood and adolescence. The Journal of Educational Research, 40, 241–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heppen, J., & Ogilvie, D. (2003). Predicting affect from global self-discrepancies: The dual role of the undesired self. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22, 347–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319–340.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, E. T. (1996). Knowledge activation: Accessibility, applicability, and salience. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 133–168). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, E. T., Bond, R. N., Klein, R., & Strauman, T. (1986). Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: How magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 5–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, E. T., Klein, R., & Strauman, T. (1985). Self-concept discrepancy theory: A psychological model for distinguishing among different aspects of depression and anxiety. Social Cognition, 3, 51–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogg, M., & Smith, J. (2007). Attitudes in social context: A social identity perspective. European Review of Social Psychology, 18, 89–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Honora, D., & Rolle, A. (2002). A discussion of the incongruence between optimism and academic performance and its influence on school violence. Journal of School Violence, 1, 67–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooker, K., Fiese, B., Jenkins, L., Morfei, M., & Schwagler, J. (1996). Possible selves among parents of infants and preschoolers. Developmental Psychology, 32, 542–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooker, K., & Kaus, C. R. (1994). Health-related possible selves in young and middle adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 9, 126–133.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoppmann, C., Gerstorf, D., Smith, J., & Klumb, P. (2007). Linking possible selves and behavior: Do domain-specific hopes and fears translate into daily activities in very old age? Journal of Gerontology, 62B, 104–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoppmann, C., & Smith, J. (2007). Life-history related differences in possible selves in very old age. International Journal of Aging, 64, 109–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard, J. (2000). Social psychology of identities. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 367–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyle, R. H., & Sherrill, M. R. (2006). Future orientation in the self-system: Possible selves, self-regulation, and behavior. Journal of Personality, 74, 1673–1696.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • James, L., & Oyserman, D. (2009a, May). Effects of future uncertainty on self-productive and self-destructive behavior choice. San Francisco: Association for Psychological Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, L., & Oyserman, D. (2009b). Unpublished raw data.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York: Henry Holt & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janis, I., Veague, H., & Driver-Linn, E. (2006). Possible selves and borderline personality disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 387–394.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kao, G. (2000). Group images and possible selves among adolescents: Linking stereotypes to expectations by race and ethnicity. Sociological Forum, 15, 407–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karniol, R., & Ross, M. (1996). The motivational impact of temporal focus: Thinking about the future and the past. Review of Psychology, 47, 593–620.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller, J., & Bless, H. (2008). Flow and regulatory compatibility: An experimental approach to the flow model of intrinsic motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 196–209.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kemmelmeier, M., & Oyserman, D. (2001a). Gendered influence of downward social comparisons on current and possible selves. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 129–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kemmelmeier, M., & Oyserman, D. (2001b). The ups and downs of thinking about a successful other: Self-construals and the consequences of social comparisons. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 311–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerpelman, J., & Dunkel, C. (2006). Possible selves: Theory, research, and applications. New York: Nova.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan, U., & Dhar, R. (2007). Where there is a way, is there a will? The effect of future choices on self control. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 136, 277–288.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kindermans, H., Goossens, M., Roelofs, J., Huijnen, I., Verbunt, J., & Morley, S., et al. (2010). A content analysis of ideal, ought, and feared selves in patients with chronic low back pain. European Journal of Pain, 14, 648–653.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, L. (2001). The health benefits of writing about life goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 798–807.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, L., & Raspin, C. (2004). Lost and found possible selves, subjective well-being, and ego development in divorced women. Journal of Personality, 72, 603–632.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kivetz, Y., & Tyler, T. R. (2007). Tomorrow I’ll be me: The effect of time perspective on the activation of idealistic versus pragmatic selves. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 102, 193–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaw, E. (2008). Understanding urban mothers’ visions of the future in terms of possible selves. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 18, 441–462.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klinger, E. (1987). Current concerns and disengagement from incentives. In F. Halisch & J. Kuhl (Eds.), Motivation, intention, and volition (pp. 337–347). Berlin: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knox, M. (2006). Gender and possible selves. In C. Dunkel & J. Kerpelman (Eds.), Possible selves: Theory, research and application (pp. 61–77). New York: Nova.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knox, M., Funk, J., Elliot, R., & Bush, E. (2000). Gender differences in adolescents’ possible selves. Youth and Society, 31, 287–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knox, M., Funk, J., Elliott, R., & Bush, E. G. (1998). Adolescents’ possible selves and their relationship to self-esteem. Sex Roles, 39, 61–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S., & Oyserman, D. (2009). Expecting to work, fearing homelessness: The possible selves of low-income mothers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39, 1334–1355.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liberman, N., & Trope, Y. (1998). The role of feasibility and desirability considerations in near and distant future decisions: A test of temporal construal theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 5–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Little, B. (1987). Personal projects and fuzzy selves: Aspects of self-identity in adolescence. In T. Honess & K. Yardley (Eds.), Self and identity: Perspectives across the lifespan (pp. 230–245). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Little, B., Salmela-Aro, K., S. Phillips (Eds.) (2007). Personal project pursuit: Goals, actions and human flourishing. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, R., Diefendorff, J., Schmidt, A., & Hall, R. (2010). Self-regulation at work. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 543–568.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. (2003). The culture of affluence: Psychological costs of material wealth. Child Development, 74, 1581–1593.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S., & Latendresse, S. (2005). Children of the affluent. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 49–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manzi, C., Vignoles, V. L., & Regalia, C. (2010). Accommodating a new identity: Possible selves, identity change and well-being across two life-transitions. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 970–984. DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.669.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954–969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1987). Possible selves: The interface between motivation and self-concept. In K. Yardley & T. Honess (Eds.), Self and identity: Psychosocial perspectives. Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H., & Oyserman, D. (1989). Gender and thought: The role of the self-concept. In M. Crawford & M. Gentry (Eds.), Gender and thought: Psychological perspectives (pp. 100–127). New York: SpringerVerlag New York, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept. Annual Review of Psychology, 28, 299–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Massey, E., Gebhardt, W., & Garnefski, N. (2008). Adolescent goal content and pursuit: A review of the literature from the past 16 years. Developmental Review, 28, 421–460.

    Google Scholar 

  • McElwee, R., & Haugh, J. (2010). Thinking clearly versus frequently about the future self: Exploring this distinction and its relation to possible selves. Self and Identity, 9, 298–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meade, E., & Inglehart, M. (2010). Young patients’ treatment motivation and satisfaction with orthognathic surgery outcomes: The role of “possible selves”. American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, 137, 26–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meek, R. (2007). The parenting possible selves of young fathers in prison. Psychology, Crime and Law, 13, 371–382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribam, G. A. (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neisser, U. (1988). Five kinds of self-knowledge. Philosophical Psychology, 1, 35–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neisser, U. (1997). The roots of self-knowledge: Perceiving self, it, and thou. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 818, 19–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norman, C., & Aron, A. (2003). Aspects of a possible self that predict motivation to achieve or avoid it. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 500–507.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2010). The future self and current action. Manuscript under editorial review.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G. (1996). Positive fantasy and motivation. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 236–259). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G. (1999). Free fantasies about the future and the emergence of developmental goals. In J. Brandstädter & R. Lerner (Eds.), Action and self-development: Theory and research through the life span (pp. 315–342). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G., & Mayer, D. (2002). The motivating function of thinking about the future: Expectations versus fantasies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1198–1212.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G., Pak, H., & Schnetter, K. (2001). Self-regulation of goal setting: Turning free fantasies about the future into binding goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736–753.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ogilvie, D. M. (1987). The undesired self: A neglected variable in personality research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 379–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, J., Roese, N., & Zanna, M. (1996). Expectancies. In T. Higgins & A. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 211–238). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ouellette, J., Hessling, R., Gibbons, F., Reis-Bergan, M., & Gerrard, M. (2005). Using images to increase exercise behavior: Prototypes versus possible selves. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 610–620.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D. (1993). Who influences identity: Adolescent identity and delinquency in interpersonal context. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 23, 203–214.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D. (2001). Self-concept and identity. In A. Tesser & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology (pp. 499–517). Malden, MA: Blackwell Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D. (2007). Social identity and self-regulation. In A. Kruglanski & T. Higgins (Eds.), Social psychology: Basic principles (2nd ed., pp. 432–453). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D. (2009a). Identity-based motivation: Implications for action-readiness, procedural readiness, and consumer behavior. Target Article. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19, 250–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D. (2009b). Identity-based motivation and consumer behavior. Response to commentary. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19, 276–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., & Terry, K. (2006). Possible selves and academic outcomes: How and when possible selves impel action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 188–204.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., Terry, K., & Hart-Johnson, T. (2004). Possible selves as roadmaps. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 130–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Coon, H., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 3–73.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Destin, M. (2010a). Identity-based motivation: Implications for intervention. The Counseling Psychologist, 38, 1001–1043.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Destin, M. (2010b). Planning to act? When future identities and social identities fit. Manuscript under editorial review.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Fryberg, S. A. (2006). The possible selves of diverse adolescents: Content and function across gender, race and national origin. In J. Kerpelman & C. Dunkel (Eds.), Possible selves: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 17–39). Huntington, NY: Nova.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Gant, L., & Ager, J. (1995). A socially contextualized model of African American identity: Possible selves and school persistence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1216–1232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & James, L. (2009). Possible selves: From content to process. In K. Markman, W. M. P. Klein, & J. A. Suhr (Eds.), The handbook of imagination and mental stimulation (pp. 373–394). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Johnson, E., & James, L. (2010). Seeing the destination but not the path: Effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on school-focused possible self content and linked behavioral strategies. Self and Identity, DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2010.487651.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Lee, S. W. S. (2008a). Does culture influence what and how we think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 311–342.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Lee, S. W. S. (2008b). A situated cognition perspective on culture: Effects of priming cultural syndromes on cognition and motivation. In R. Sorrentino & S. Yamaguchi (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition across cultures (pp. 237–265). New York: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Markus, H. (1990a). Possible selves and delinquency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 112–125.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Markus, H. (1990b). Possible selves in balance: Implications for delinquency. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 141–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Markus, H. (1993). The sociocultural self. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self: The self in social oerspective (pp. 187–220). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Markus, H. R. (1998). Self as social representation. In SU. Flick (Ed), The psychology of the social (pp. 107–125). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Saltz, E. (1993). Competence, delinquency, and attempts to attain possible selves. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 360–374.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Sorensen, N. (2009). Understanding cultural syndrome effects on what and how we think: A situated cognition model. In R. Wyer, Y. -y Hong, & C. -y Chiu (Eds.), Understanding culture: Theory, research and application (pp. 25–52). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Terry, K., & Bybee, D. (2002). A possible selves intervention to enhance school involvement. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 313–326.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., & Yoon, K. -I. (2009). Neighborhood effects on racial-ethnic identity: The undermining role of segregation. Race and Social Problems, 1, 67–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ozgul, S., Heubeck, B., Ward, J., & Wilkinson, R. B. (2003). Self-discrepancies: Measurement and relation to various negative affective states. Australian Journal of Psychology, 55, 56–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peetz, J., Wilson, A. E., & Strahan, E. J. (2009). So far away: The role of subjective temporal distance to future goals in motivation and behavior. Social Cognition, 27, 475–496.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, A., Silvia, P., & Paradise, M. (2007). The undesired self and emotional experience: A latent variable analysis. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26, 1035–1047.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pisarik, C., & Shoffner, M. (2009). The relationship among work possible selves, socioeconomic position, and the psychological well-being of individuals in early adulthood. Journal of Career Development, 35, 306–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Price, R., Friedland, D., & Vinokur, A. (1998). Job loss: Hard times and eroded identity. In J. H. Harvey (Ed.), Perspectives on loss: A sourcebook (pp. 303–316). Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pronin, E., & Ross, L. (2006). Temporal differences in trait self-aspcription: When the self is seen as an other. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 197–209.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramanathan, S., & Williams, P. (2007). Immediate and delayed emotional consequences of indulgence: The moderating influence of personality type on mixed emotions. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 212–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, C. (1954). The case of Mrs. Oak: A research analysis. In C. R. Rogers & R. F. Dymond (Eds.), Psychotherapy and personality change (pp. 259–348). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, S. (1977). New approaches to the analysis of personal constructs in personal perception. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 24, 174–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruvolo, A., & Markus, H. (1992). Possible selves and performance. The power of self-relevant imagery. Social Cognition, 10, 95–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D. (1991). Possible selves in adulthood and old age: A tale of shifting horizons. Psychology and Aging, 6, 286–295.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. (1991). Learned optimism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, B., & Marshall, A. (1999). Possible selves mapping: Life-career exploration with young adolescents. Canadian Journal of Counseling, 33, 37–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, J. L. (1966). Daydreaming: An introduction to the experimental study of inner experience. New York: Random House, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, E. A. (1996). A guide to constructs of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 549–570.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G., & Oyserman, D. (2010). Yes we can! Cuing effort with Obama. Manuscript under editorial review.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J., & Freund, A. (2002). The dynamics of possible selves in very old age. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 57B, 492–500.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, R., & Goldberg, W. A. (1999). Self and possible selves during the transition to parenthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 244–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stryker, S., & Burke, P. (2000). The past, present, and future of an Identity Theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63, 284–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193–210.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., Pham, L. B., Rivkin, I. D., & Armor, D. A. (1998). Harnessing the imagination: Mental simulation, self-regulation, and coping. American Psychologist, 53, 429–439.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teigen, K., Normann, H., Bjorkheim, J., & Helland, S. (2000). Who would you most like to like? Adolescents’ ideals at the beginning and the end of the century. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 44, 5–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2003). Temporal construal. Psychological Review, 110, 401–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasquez, N., & Buehler, R. (2007). Seeing future success: Does imagery perspective influence achievement motivation? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1392–1405.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waid, L., & Frazier, L. (2003). Cultural differences in possible selves during later life. Journal of Aging Studies, 17, 251–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wakslak, C., Nussbaum, S., Liberman, N., & Trope, Y. (2008). Representations of the self in the near and distant future. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 757–773.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, T. (2009). The work and educational aspirations of young single mothers in rural Communities. M.A. Thesis, Department of Educational Psychology and Leadership Studies, University of Victoria, BC, Canada. Retrieved Jan 21, 2010 from http://dspace.library.uvic.ca:8080/dspace/bitstream/1828/1973/1/Tanya Ward’s Thesis Final.pdf

  • Yowell, C. (2000). Possible selves and future orientation: Exploring hopes and fears of Latino boys and girls. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20, 245–280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zentner, M., & Renaud, O. (2007). Origins of adolescents’ ideal self: An intergenerational perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 557–574.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, School of Social Work, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Daphna Oyserman

  2. School of Social Work, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Leah James

Authors
  1. Daphna Oyserman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Leah James
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Daphna Oyserman .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Department of Epidemiology and Public He, University of Miami, N.W. 10th Avenue, Suite 321 1425, Miami, 33136, Florida, USA

    Seth J. Schwartz

  2. , Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Leuven, Tiensestraat 102, Leuven, 3000, Belgium

    Koen Luyckx

  3. School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, BN1 9QH, United Kingdom

    Vivian L. Vignoles

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Oyserman, D., James, L. (2011). Possible Identities. In: Schwartz, S., Luyckx, K., Vignoles, V. (eds) Handbook of Identity Theory and Research. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation