Abstract
Higher education has been making significant contributions to the Cuban innovation system. In this chapter, we claim that such contribution does not come only from the research activity as such in the universities, but also from other activities performed by the universities. We also discuss issues such as the formation of graduates and the role of postgraduate studies, and the formation of university staff. These processes link the university to the innovation system.
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Notes
- 1.
The rupture of the long standing relationships with those countries for Cuba meant a drastic reduction of more than 70% in imports, the loss of guaranteed markets for its products, quick decrease of the imports and the impossibility of consenting to soft credits from international organizations. In these difficult circumstances, the continuity of the social and economic development that had been achieved by the end of the 1980s was in risk.
- 2.
The Law’s objective is to impede Cuban trade with subsidiaries of U.S. companies located in third countries.
- 3.
Law aimed preventing foreign investments in Cuba and to penalize foreign companies that attempt to trade with formerly U.S. owned companies in Cuba.
- 4.
Between 1989 and 1992 technological supplies coming from USSR were interrupted. In three years the imports decreased by 72% and the exports by 67%, the rate of investments decreased from 26 to 7%, the gross capital formation decreased by 60% and the imports of oil fell by more than 50%. In 1993, the GDP declined by 35% when compared the 1989 level.
- 5.
Kelly’s typology that conceives technological intensity as the relationship among the total expenses (current plus investment expenses) assigned to R&D and the value of the production of an economic activity. The critics of this tipología point out, among other limitations that an industrial branch can classify as of technological low density in a direct form, and however to be user in an indirect way of technologies generated in other branches through the way of inputs. The followers justify the use of that classification based on empiric evidence, in many industries, between the intensity of the expenses of R&D and the technological complexity (Fernández 1994).
- 6.
CITMA (1995). “The System of Science and Technological Innovation”. Basic Document. Havana, December, pp. 3–61.
- 7.
Here we assume the conception of “innovation” system as a “group constituted by the organizations, institutions, interactions among different collective actors and the social general dynamics that have a higher incidence in the capacities available for research, experimental development, technological innovation and the diffusion of productive technical advances” (Arocena and Sutz 2005, p. 96)
- 8.
Scientific and technological potential is considered (branch in this case) the total of resources available to investigate, innovate and study the problems of national or international character outlined by the process of science, technology and innovation.
- 9.
Inputs are the total monetary contribution to the State, the generation of products and useful services to improve the people’s life, job guarantee, organizational and technical contributions, the new products and services, the patents, innovations and all that elevates the efficiency of the socialist society.
- 10.
Program of renovation of structures and work methods of the Cuban enterprises whose main objectives are to reorganize the production flows and services, to modernize the productive processes with an economic rationality approach, looking for the maximum effectiveness, efficiency and possible competitiveness and observing the necessary protection of the environment and a fair treatment to the labor resources.
- 11.
For example, in 2005, the enterprises in the system of improvement had a higher productivity by 54.55% than those that are not. The contribution in foreign currencies per worker was 1, 618.76 compared with 480,86 in other enterprises, and the utilities of the enterprises in that system were 14.50% greater than the remaining ones (Betancourt 2005). In 20072008, the entities in improvement achieved a productivity 48% greater than the rest of the enterprises (Terrero ) The managerial Cuban panorama has enterprises that are able to be equalled to similar ones in the international environment from the point of view of their activity indicators, and others that need to change to respond to the demands of the economy and the Cuban society of gaining higher productivity and efficiency.
- 12.
The following ones are among them: Cuban Central Bank. Rector authority of the banking system, among other functions, it proposes the monetary policy that allows the country to achieve the demanded objectives. Investments Bank S A. It is guided to the provision of specialized financial services as regards investments, identifying and mobilizing available resources, so much in the national market as in the external one, guiding them to the more productive and prioritized sectors of the economy.Trade International Bank S A. It offers wide range of services to Cuban, foreign, and mixed entities. Their main activities include, among others, transactions related to the external trade and transfers from and toward Cuba.Financial International Bank. It carries out operations in convertible foreign currencies with the character of commercial bank; has a solid reputation and agent banks in several countries.
- 13.
The impact on the country in energy terms, is illustrated by Figueras when standing out that Cuba consumed in 1978 a total 1,111 energy kilograms (in terms of equivalent petroleum) per each million of dollars of GDP. Due to the rationalization and economy efforts, by 19871994 that cipher was reduced to 848 kg. However, in the mentioned years, the value of that indicator decreased in Spain from 407 to 323; in Italy from 322 at 259 and in Japan from 286 at 205 (Figueras :46).
- 14.
In 20062008 Cuba dedicated to the education 9.6% of the GDP and 24.6% of the domestic budget (Prontuario estadístico. MES ).
- 15.
In the United States and Europe, 20% of the biotechnical companies is hardly able to be financed with its own sales of products. They depend mainly on venture capital and speculations in the stock exchange (Lage 2001). As can be appreciated, the experience of the Cuban biotechnology is radically different to the one that we find in United States and Europe. Maybe the crucial difference is in the regime of property. In Cuba there is social property and the benefits are received by the society. Moral motives are fundamental in the performance of scientists and other social actors.
- 16.
The general information on Higher Education were offered by the Office of Statistics of the Ministry of Higher Education.
- 17.
Professional training has an important role in the innovation system. It contributes the graduate university students, develops practically all the important specialties of the country with an efficiency rate of 60% (students that finish their studies in relationship to those that enter). The universities collaborate actively in the determination of necessities of training of the institutions and local governments. At universities the postgraduate training is developed with the purpose of fomenting teaching and research capacities.
- 18.
All the IES carry out of continuous education activities, postgraduate training and researches, with variable intensity and in accordance with their academic profiles. A dozen of those universities has the fundamental influence in the researches and the doctoral training.
- 19.
Those laboring entities that have the right scientific and technical development in the field of such specialty, the necessary quantity of specialists required for students’ attention, the general conditions to propitiate the development of lessons, study practice, production practice, term, course and diploma papers, the work of scientific extracurricular research, etc. that they contribute with the development of abilities and professional habits. These units should guarantee the development of systematic or concentrated educational activities, with permanency or not of the students in the educational unit.
- 20.
It is necessary to take into account that in Cuba the unemployment level is below 2%, what may technically called as “full employment.”
- 21.
of them are linked to the Ministry of higher Education, 2,361 to the Public Health ministry, 209 to the Ministry of Education and 240 to the National Institute of Physical Education, Sport and Recreation.
- 22.
For example, the most recently established HEIs include the University of Informatics Sciences (UCI), with over 10,000 students, reflecting the government’s efforts to develop the informatics industry, connect it to the country’s development needs and increase the presence of its products in the country’s export portfolio.
- 23.
All data on postgraduate education has been made available by the Postgraduate Division of the Ministry of Higher Education
- 24.
They are officially called cadres and reserves, respectively
- 25.
Other HEIs fall under the Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of the Armed Forces, etc.
- 26.
Identifying these challenges is the result of the work carried out at the Seminar “University, Innovation and Society” developed by the program on Science, Technology and Innovation by the University of Havana.
- 27.
The CUMs are a new university institution that emerges in the wake of the integration of municipalities in the training of professionals in programs under the Ministry of Higher Education (MES), Ministry of Education (MINED), the Ministry of Healthcare (MINSAP) and the Sports Institute (INDER).
- 28.
This is related with the intention to reverse the trend towards a decline of enrollment in technical science programs.
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Jover, J.N., Arriete, L.F.M., Ones, I.P., González, A.F., Cuevas, J.L.G. (2011). Cuba: University, Innovation and Society: Higher Education in the National System of Innovation. In: Göransson, B., Brundenius, C. (eds) Universities in Transition. Insight and Innovation in International Development. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7509-6_6
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