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The Eradication of Bovine Tuberculosis in the United States in a Comparative Perspective

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Health and Animal Agriculture in Developing Countries

Part of the book series: Natural Resource Management and Policy ((NRMP,volume 36))

Abstract

At the dawn of the twentieth century, tuberculosis (TB) was the leading cause of death in the industrialized world. In 1900, TB caused about 1 out of every 9 deaths in the United States. Death represented only a fraction of the disease’s cost because, besides those that succumbed, countless others were permanently crippled and wasted away in pain. It is probable that 10% or more of U.S. TB sufferers had contracted the bovine form of the disease. Infected milk products were the main conduit to humans; however, other cattle products, direct contact with cattle, and swine products all posed a danger. Bovine-type infections were far more common in nonpulmonary cases and in children, especially infants. The mysteries of this classic zoonotic disease needed to be understood before effective action could be taken.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Tuberculosis,” Table 17, p. 516, and Mortality, pp. 16, 27. In addition to the official death toll, many who died of other causes harbored tuberculosis.

  2. 2.

    Olmstead and Rhode, “Impossible Undertaking,” pp. 740–42.

  3. 3.

    This was also the case in Europe where many countries had succeeded in stamping out epizootics of FMD, rinderpest, and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Waddington, “To Stamp Out,” p. 32.

  4. 4.

    Smith, Conquest, p. 12.

  5. 5.

    National Research Council, Livestock, p. 13.

  6. 6.

    Melvin, “Economic,” p. 103, and in the recent literature including National Research Council, Livestock, p. 56; Faulder, “Bovine,” p. 14 states “the producing life of a dairy animal infected with tuberculosis is often cut in half.”

  7. 7.

    Kiernan and Wight, “Tuberculosis,” pp. 1–18; Russell and Hoffman, “Three Year Campaign,” pp. 11–12; Russell, “Spread,” pp. 3–5.

  8. 8.

    Myers, Man’s Greatest, pp. 264, 267–68, 309, 323.

  9. 9.

    Myers, Man’s Greatest, p. 115; and U.S. BAI, Special Report 1916, pp. 416–17.

  10. 10.

    U.S. BAI, Special Report 1916, pp. 417–18; Smith, Conquest, pp. 7–9; Houck, Bureau, pp. 364–66; Myers, Man’s Greatest, p. 125. Note that the proportion of false positives (or more precisely the probability that a positive test has identified an uninfected animal) depends on the prevalence of the disease. As the disease becomes less common, a positive result under a given test procedure is more likely to be false. National Research Council, Livestock, pp. 17–19. According to this source, the probability that an uninfected animal would test positive was less than 2%.

  11. 11.

    Mitchell, “Animal,” p. 168; and U.S. BAI, Special Report 1916, p. 409.

  12. 12.

    Melvin, “Economic,” pp. 101–02. As a crude indication of how fast the disease could spread, bovine tuberculosis probably did not enter Sweden and Finland until the 1840s and by the end of the nineteenth century it is likely that 25% of their cattle were infected. Myers and Steele, Bovine, pp. 256–57, 280–81.

  13. 13.

    U.S. BAI, Special Report 1912, p. 417; Orland, “Cow’s Milk,” p. 11; and Myers, Man’s Greatest, p. 222.

  14. 14.

    Miller, “Tuberculous Cattle,” p. 35; New York Times (1 June 1904), p. 1.

  15. 15.

    Some basic terminology needs clarification. The formal name of the bovine strain of tuberculosis is Mycobacterium bovis, which is often summarized as M. bovis. The corresponding terminology for the human strain of tuberculosis is Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. tuberculosis.

  16. 16.

    Myers, Man’s Greatest, pp. 106–09, 200, 211–19, 226; Myers and Steele, Bovine, p. 57; and Dankner et al., “Mycobacterium,” pp. 20–24.

  17. 17.

    Cited in Myers, Man’s Greatest Victory, pp. 245–46.

  18. 18.

    Myers, Man’s Greatest Victory, p. 265.

  19. 19.

    National Research Council, Livestock Disease Eradication, p. 32; Buddle, pp. 126–32; Meyers and Steele, Bovine, pp. 260–62; Myers, Man’s Greatest Victory, pp. 188–97; Fanning and Fitzgerald, “BCG Vaccines,” pp. 541–54.

  20. 20.

    Teller, Tuberculosis, pp. 19–20; Myers, Man’s Greatest, pp. 272–74, 283; and Reynolds, “Problem,” pp. 454–56.

  21. 21.

    C. E. Thorne, “Bovine Tuberculosis,” Bulletin of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, No. 108 (June 1899), p. 369.

  22. 22.

    Pearson and Ravenel, “Tuberculosis,” pp. 167–200; Reynolds, “Problem,” pp. 451–58; Lampard, Rise, pp. 188–89; Myers, Man’s Greatest, pp. 278–79; and Salmon, Legislation.

  23. 23.

    “State and Territorial,” pp. 70–72; Lampard, Rise, pp. 188–89; Wisconsin. Department of Agriculture, Biennial Report 1915–1916, pp. 83–95, and Biennial Report 1919–1920, pp. 41–47; Reynolds, “Problem,” pp. 451–54, Breeder’s Gazette, 30 Nov. 1910, pp. 1169–70.

  24. 24.

    “Bars Diseased Cattle: Governor Tanner Issues Prohibitive Proclamation,” Chicago Tribune, 14 June 1899, p. 7.

  25. 25.

    Charles A Pierce et al. and State Board of Live Stock Commissioners v. E. B. Dillingham, 96 Ill. App. 300; 203 Ill. 148.

  26. 26.

    St. Louis Republic, 1 September 1914, pp. 1–2 and 20 September 1914, p. 1.

  27. 27.

    St. Louis Republic, 1 September 1914, p. 1.

  28. 28.

    U.S. BAI, Chief of the Bureau to Fitts, 9 July 1920. See also “U.S. Grand Jury Hears Evidence Against Dorsey,” Elgin Daily News, 29 September 1915, p. 1; Olmstead and Rhode, “Tuberculous,” pp. 929–63.

  29. 29.

    U.S. BAI, Chief of the Bureau to Fitts, 9 July 1920.

  30. 30.

    St. Louis Republic, 1 September 1914, p. 1.

  31. 31.

    “Imprisonment for Dealing in Tuberculous Cattle,” American Journal of Veterinary Medicine 13:5 (May 1918), 236-37.

  32. 32.

    U.S. BAI, Chief of the Bureau to Fitts, 9 July 1920.

  33. 33.

    Hoard’s Dairyman, 20 June 1913; St. Louis Republic, 20 September 1914, p. 2, and correspondence in U.S. BAI, Dorsey file of the National Archives.

  34. 34.

    U.S. House. Committee on Agriculture, Tuberculosis in Livestock, p. 10.

  35. 35.

    Kiernan, “Accredited-Herd,” pp. 215–20.

  36. 36.

    Myers, Man’s Greatest, p. 295.

  37. 37.

    Larson et al., “Dairy,” p. 341.

  38. 38.

    U.S. House, Agricultural, 1925, p. 136, and Agricultural, 1927, p. 147.

  39. 39.

    Smith, Conquest, p. 28; and Kiernan, “Bovine,” p. 182. Some states such as New York and California required the signatures of at least 90 percent of cattle owners in an area to initiate the program.

  40. 40.

    U.S. House, Agricultural, 1930, pp. 107–08; U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, p. 5505.

  41. 41.

    As Smith (Conquest, p. 29) notes, the program’s progress nationally created market pressures for its adoption throughout the Midwest. After a large fraction of their stock proved to be reactors, eastern dairymen began to demand replacements from the more western states. Given eastern regulations aimed at preventing the re-introduction of the disease, the purchases were concentrated in clean areas, leading to premiums for dairy cows from accredited counties.

  42. 42.

    U.S Agricultural Research Service, “Why Tuberculosis,” pp. 1–3; and Smith, Conquest, p. 48.

  43. 43.

    National Research Council, Livestock, pp. 36–39; Essey and Koller, “Status of Bovine Tuberculosis in North America,” Veterinary Microbiology 40 (1994), 15–22. Today, when meat inspectors discover tuberculous animals, the authorities “depopulate” the entire herd.

  44. 44.

    Olmstead and Rhode, “Not on My Farm,” pp. 768–809.

  45. 45.

    Kiernan and Wight, “Tuberculosis,” p. 2. Our evaluation of the USDA estimates indicated that the USDA figures appear reasonably well grounded (except for an over statement of the loss to pigs) and are likely lower bound estimates of the costs. For a more detailed treatment of this issue see, Olmstead and Rhode, “Impossible Undertaking,” pp. 761–64, 768.

  46. 46.

    Kiernan and Ernest, “Toll,” pp. 280–81.

  47. 47.

    To estimate the net losses to farmers, we use the difference between the appraised value and the sum of the salvage value and the government indemnities.

  48. 48.

    National Research Council, Livestock, p. 9; Mohler, “Infectious,” p. 376.

  49. 49.

    Myers and Steele, Bovine, p. 241 and Thoen and Steele, Mycobacterium, p. 195.

  50. 50.

    Dormandy, White Death, pp. 330–31; and Dubos and Dubos, White Plague, p. 260.

  51. 51.

    MacRae, “Eradication,” pp. 81–88; Great Britain Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Animal Health, pp. 214–228; Waddington, “To Stamp Out,” pp. 29–43; Dormandy, White Death, pp. 332–338; Proud, “Some Lessons,” pp. 11–18.

  52. 52.

    This range of estimates may have understated the problem. Cobbett’s 1917 estimate that the bovine form accounted for about 6% of all TB mortality appears to have influenced others, but by the author’s admission this was little more than “guesswork.” In particular, important assumptions about the incidence of the bovine form in adults would later be shown to be an understatement. Cobbett, Causes, pp. 658–659. Griffith was probably the most careful student of BTB incidence in Britain in the interwar years, thought the estimate of 2,000 understatements but did not venture his own estimate. Dalling, “Tuberculosis,” pp. 51–52; and Ritchie, “Bovine Tuberculosis,” pp. 503–508.

  53. 53.

    Myers and Steele, Bovine, pp. 188, 268; Goodchild and Clifton-Hadley, “Fall and Rise,” pp. 100–116; http://www.defra.gov.uk/foodfarm/farmanimal/diseases/atoz/tb/abouttb/index.htm.

  54. 54.

    Myers and Steele, Bovine, pp. 273–275; Thoen and Steele, Mycobacterium, pp. 224–236; Good, “Ireland,” pp. 154–155.

  55. 55.

    Myers and Steele, Bovine, pp. 256–60, 276, and 280–286; Thoen and Steele, Mycobacterium,pp. 213, 242, and 248–249; http://www.museumsnett.no/gamlehvammuseum/vet_utstilling/html/artikler/tuberculosis.htm.

  56. 56.

    Myers and Steele, Bovine, pp. 280–286; Thoen and Steele, Mycobacterium, pp. 248–249.

  57. 57.

    Myers and Steele, Bovine, p. 249, 253, 256–260 and 280–286; Thoen and Steele, Mycobacterium, pp. 206, 213, and 248–49.

  58. 58.

    Myers and Steele, Bovine, pp. 244, 260, 262–268, 275–276, and 285; Thoen and Steele, Mycobacterium, pp. 215, 217-222, 241–242, and 249.

  59. 59.

    Moda, “Non-technical Constraints,” pp. 253–258.

  60. 60.

    Caffrey, “Status,” pp. 1–4; Reviriego Gordejo and Vermeersch, “Towards Eradication;” de la Rua-Domenech, “Bovine Tuberculosis,” pp. 19–45.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Economics, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA

    Alan L. Olmstead

  2. Department of Economics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA

    Paul W. Rhode

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  1. College of Natural Resources, Dept. Agricultural & Resource Economics, University of California, Berkeley, Giannini Hall 206, Berkeley, 94720-3310, California, USA

    David Zilberman

  2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, Rome, 00100, Italy

    Joachim Otte

  3. , Department of Agricultural and Resource, University of California, Giannini Hall 207, Berkeley, 94720-3310, USA

    David Roland-Holst

  4. , Veterinary Clinical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom

    Dirk Pfeiffer

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Olmstead, A.L., Rhode, P.W. (2012). The Eradication of Bovine Tuberculosis in the United States in a Comparative Perspective. In: Zilberman, D., Otte, J., Roland-Holst, D., Pfeiffer, D. (eds) Health and Animal Agriculture in Developing Countries. Natural Resource Management and Policy, vol 36. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7077-0_2

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