Skip to main content

Potential Neuroprotective Strategies for Ischemic Injury

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Neurochemical Aspects of Neurotraumatic and Neurodegenerative Diseases
  • 679 Accesses

Abstract

Stroke (ischemic injury) is the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide, accounting for 5 million deaths per year. Oxygen deprivation due to stroke leads to rapid neuronal death and dysfunction of the body part controlled by the affected neurons. Thus, stroke is not only responsible for mortality and morbidity but also for serious long-term disability, including paralysis, cognitive deficits, dementia, dizziness, vertigo, impaired vision, memory loss, language deficits, emotional difficulties, pain, and depression. About 4.7 million stroke survivors currently live in the USA. The number of stroke patients is expected to increase worldwide as the population continues to age.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adibhatla RM, Hatcher JF, Dempsey RJ (2004) Cytidine-5-diphosphocholine affects CTP-phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase and lyso-phosphatidylcholine after transient brain ischemia. J Neurosci Res 76:390–396

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Adibhatla RM, Hatcher JF, Larsen EC, Chen X, Sun D, Tsao FH (2006) CDP-choline significantly restores phosphatidylcholine levels by differentially affecting phospholipase A2 and CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase after stroke. J Biol Chem 281:6718–6725

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aichner F, Adelwohrer C, Haring HP (2002) Rehabilitation approaches to stroke. J Neural Transm Suppl 63:59–73

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alberts MJ (1999) Diagnosis and treatment of ischemic stroke. Am J Med 106:211–221

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez XA, Mouzo R, Pichel V, Pérez P, Laredo M, Fernández-Novoa L, Corzo L, Zas R, Alcaraz M, Secades JJ, Lozano R, Cacabelos R (1999) Double-blind placebo-controlled study with citicoline in APOE genotyped Alzheimer’s disease patients. Effects on cognitive performance, brain bioelectrical activity and cerebral perfusion. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 21:633–644

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arita M, Oh SF, Chonan T, Hong S, Elangovan S, Sun YP, Uddin J, Petasis NA, Serhan CN (2006) Metabolic inactivation of resolvin E1 and stabilization of its anti-inflammatory actions. J Biol Chem 281:22847–22854

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arita M, Ohira T, Sun YP, Elangovan S, Chiang N, Serhan CN (2007) Resolvin E1 selectively interacts with leukotriene B4 receptor BLT1 and ChemR23 to regulate inflammation. J Immunol 178:3912–3917

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Asahi M, Huang Z, Thomas S, Yoshimura S, Sumii T, Mori T, Qiu J, Amin-Hanjani S, Huang PL, Liao JK, Lo E, Moskowitz MA (2005) Protective effects of statins involving both eNOS and tPA in focal cerebral ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 25:722–729

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Avrova NF, Zakharova IO, Tyurin VA, Tyurina YY, Gamaley IA, Schepetkin IA (2002) Different metabolic effects of ganglioside GM1 in brain synaptosomes and phagocytic cells. Neurochem Res 27:751–759

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barone FC (2009) Ischemic stroke intervention requires mixed cellular protection of the penumbra. Curr Opin Invest Drugs 10:220–223

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrachina M, Secades J, Lozano R, Gómez-Santos C, Ambrosio S, Ferrer I (2002) Citicoline increases glutathione redox ratio and reduces caspase-3 activation and cell death in staurosporine-treated SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Brain Res 957:84–90

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barrachina M, Domínguez I, Ambrosio S, Secades J, Lozano R, Ferrer I (2003) Neuroprotective effect of citicoline in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats and in 6-hydroxydopamine-treated SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. J Neurol Sci 215:105–110

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bas O, Songur A, Sahin O, Mollaoglu H, Ozen OA, Yaman M, Eser O, Fidan H, Yagmurca M (2007) The protective effect of fish n-3 fatty acids on cerebral ischemia in rat hippocampus. Neurochem Int 50:548–554

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bashkatova VG, Koshelev VB, Fadyukova OE, Alexeev AA, Vanin AF, Rayevsky KS, Ashmarin IP, Armstrong DM (2001) Novel synthetic analogue of ACTH 4-10 (Semax) but not glycine prevents the enhanced nitric oxide generation in cerebral cortex of rats with incomplete global ischemia. Brain Res 94:145–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Bazan NG (2005) Neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1): a DHA-derived mediator that protects brain and retina against cell injury-induced oxidative stress. Brain Pathol 15:159–166

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bazan NG (2007) Omega-3 fatty acids, pro-inflammatory signaling and neuroprotection. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 10:136–141

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bazan NG (2009) Neuroprotectin D1-mediated anti-inflammatory and survival signaling in stroke, retinal degenerations, and Alzheimer’s disease. J Lipid Res 50(Suppl):S400–S405

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergeron M, Yu AY, Soleay K, Semenza GL, Sharp FR (1999) Induction of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) and its target genes following focal ischaemia in rat brain. Eur J Neurosci 11:4159–4170

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blanco M, Lizasoain I, Sobrino T, Vivancos J, Castillo J (2006) Ischemic preconditioning: a novel target for neuroprotective therapy. Cerebrovasc Dis 21(Suppl 2):38–47

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bolognini N, Pascual-Leone A, Fregni F (2009) Using non-invasive brain stimulation to augment motor training-induced plasticity. J Neuroeng Rehabil 6:8

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borlongan CV, Hadman M, Sanberg CD, Sanberg PR (2004) Central nervous system entry of peripherally injected umbilical cord blood cells is not required for neuroprotection in stroke. Stroke 35:2385–2389

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Candelise L, Ciccone A (2001) Gangliosides for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4:CD000094

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cao D, Yang B, Hou L, Xu J, Xue R, Sun L, Zhou C, Liu Z (2007) Chronic daily administration of ethyl docosahexaenoate protects against gerbil brain ischemic damage through reduction of arachidonic acid liberation and accumulation. J Nutr Biochem 18:297–304

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carter AJ, Grauert M, Pschorn U, Bechtel WD, Bartmann-Lindholm C, Qu Y, Scheuer T, Catterall WA, Weiser T (2000) Potent blockade of sodium channels and protection of brain tissue from ischemia by BIII 890 CL. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:4944–4949

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carro E, Trejo JL, Busiguina S, Torres-Aleman I (2001) Circulating insulin-like growth factor I mediates the protective effects of physical exercise. J Neurosci 21:5678–5684

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chacon MR, Jensen MB, Sattin JA, Zivin JA (2008) Neuroprotection in cerebral ischemia: emphasis on the SAINT trial. Curr Cardiol Rep 10:37–42

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang YC, Shyu WC, Lin SZ, Li H (2007) Regenerative therapy for stroke. Cell Transplant 16:171–181

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiang N, Serhan CN, Dahlén SE, Drazen JM, Hay DW, Rovati GE, Shimizu T, Yokomizo T, Brink C (2006) The lipoxin receptor ALX: potent ligand-specific and stereoselective actions in vivo. Pharmacol Rev 58:463–487

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chudzik W, Kaczorowska B, Chiemlewski H, Przybyla M, Galka M (2005) Statins and stroke. Pol Merkur Lekarski 19:591–595

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark WM (2009) Efficacy of citicoline as an acute stroke treatment. Exp Opin Pharmacother 10:839–846

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A, Mann N, Lindeberg S, Watkins BA, O’Keefe J, Brand-Miller JH (2005) Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am J Clin Nutr 81:341–354

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Culman J, Zhao Y, Gohlke P, Herdegen T (2007) PPAR-gamma: therapeutic target for ischemic stroke. Trends Pharmacol Sci 28:244–249

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Diener HC, Schneider D, Lampl Y, Bornstein NM, Kozak A, Rosenberg G (2008) DP-b99, a membrane-activated metal ion chelator, as neuroprotective therapy in ischemic stroke. Stroke 39:1774–1778

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ding O, Vaynman S, Akhavan M, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F (2006) Insulin-like growth factor I interfaces with brain-derived neurotrophic factor-mediated synaptic plasticity to modulate aspects of exercise-induced cognitive function. Neurosci 140:823–833

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dishman RK, Berthoud HR, Booth FW, Cotman CW, Edgerton VR, Fleshner MR, Gandevia SC, Gomez-Pinilla F, Greenwood BN, Hillman CH, Kramer AF, Levin BE, Moran TH, Russo-Neustadt AA, Salamone JD, Van Hoomissen JD, Wade CE, York DA, Zigmond MJ (2006) Neurobiology of exercise. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14:345–356

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • During MJ, Symes CW, Lawlor PA, Lin J, Dunning J, Fitzsimons HL, Poulsen D, Leone P, Xu R, Dicker BL, Lipski J, Young D (2000) An oral vaccine against NMDAR1 with efficacy in experimental stroke and epilepsy. Science 287:1453–1460

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Endres M (2005) Statins and stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 25:1093–1110

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fagan SC, Bowes MP, Berri SA, Zivin JA (1999) Combination treatment for acute ischemic stroke: a ray of Hope? J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 8:359–367

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fan X, Heijnen CJ, van der Kooij MA, Groendaal F, van Bel F (2009) The role and regulation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha expression in brain development and neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. Brain Res Rev 62:99–108

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farooqui AA, Haun SE, Horrocks LA (1994) Ischemia and hypoxia. In: Siegel GJ, Agranoff BW, Albers RW, Molinoff PB (eds) Basic neurochemistry: molecular, cellular, and medical aspects. Raven Press, New York, NY, pp 867–883

    Google Scholar 

  • Farooqui AA, Ong WY, Horrocks LA (2006) Inhibitors of brain phospholipase A2 activity: their neuropharmacological effects and therapeutic importance for the treatment of neurologic disorders. Pharmacol Rev 58:591–620

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farooqui AA, Horrocks LA (2007) Glycerophospholipids in Brain. Springer, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Farooqui AA, Horrocks LA, Farooqui T (2007a) Modulation of inflammation in brain: a matter of fat. J Neurochem 101:577–599

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farooqui AA, Ong WY, Horrocks LA, Chen P, Farooqui T (2007b) Comparison of biochemical effects of statins and fish oil in brain: the battle of the titans. Brain Res Rev 56:443–471

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farooqui AA, Ong WY, Horrocks LA (2008) Neurochemical aspects of excitotoxicity. Springer, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Farooqui AA (2009a) Hot topics in neural membrane lipidology. Springer, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Farooqui AA (2009b) Beneficial effects of fish oil on human brain. Springer, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Farooqui T, Farooqui AA (2009) Aging: an important factor for the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Mech Ageing Dev 130:203–215

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandes JS, Mori MA, Ekuni R, Oliveira RM, Milani H (2008) Long-term treatment with fish oil prevents memory impairments but not hippocampal damage in rats subjected to transient, global cerebral ischemia. Nutr Res 28:798–808

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feuerstein GZ, Ruffolo RR (2007) Discontinued drugs in 2006: cardiovascular drugs translational medicine perspective. Expert Opin Invest Drugs 16:1315–1326

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feuerstein GZ, Zaleska MM, Krams M, Wang X, Day M, Rutkowski JL, Finklestein SP, Pangalos MN, Poole M, Stiles GL, Ruffolo RR, Walsh FL (2008) Missing steps in the STAIR case: a translational medicine perspective on the development of NXY-059 for treatment of acute ischemic stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 28:217–219

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fioravanti M, Yanagi M (2005) Cytidinediphosphocholine (CDP-choline) for cognitive and behavioural disturbances associated with chronic cerebral disorders in the elderly. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2:CD000269

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford GA (2008) Clinical pharmacological issues in the development of acute stroke therapies. Br J Pharmacol 153(Suppl 1):S112–S119

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilgun-Sherki Y, Melamed E, Offen D (2006) Anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases: current state. Curr Pharmaceut Des 12:3509–3519

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilroy DW, Lawrence T, Perretti M, Rossi AG (2004) Inflammatory resolution: new opportunities for drug discovery. Nat Rev Drug Discov 3:401–416

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giménez R, Aguilar J (2003) Effects of cytidine 5′-diphosphocholine on plasma homocysteine levels in rat. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 134:271–276

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glodstein LB, Adams R, Alberts MJ, Degraba TJ, Gorelick PB, Guyton JR, Hart RG, Howard G, Kelly-Hayes M, Nixon JV, Sacco RL (2006) Primary prevention of ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council: cosponsored by the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Interdisciplinary Working Group; Cardiovascular Nursing Council; Clinical Cardiology Council; Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism Council; and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Stroke 37:1583–1633

    Google Scholar 

  • Goettl VM, Zhang H, Burrows AC, Wemlinger TA, Neff NH, Hadjiconstantinou M (2003) GM1 enhances dopaminergic markers in the brain of aged rats. Exp Neurol 183:665–672

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg WJ, Dorman RV, Dabrowiecki Z, Horrocks LA (1985) The effects of ischemia and CDPamines on Na+, K+-ATPase and acetylcholinesterase activities in rat brain. Neurochem Pathol 3:237–248

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Govender P, Kalra L (2007) Benefits of occupational therapy in stroke rehabilitation. Expert Rev Neurother 7:1013–1019

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green AR, Ashwood T (2005) Free radical trapping as a therapeutic approach to neuroprotection in stroke: experimental and clinical studies with NXY-059 and free radical scavengers. Curr Drug Targets CNS Neurol Disord 4:109–118

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Green AR (2008) Pharmacological approaches to acute ischaemic stroke: reperfusion certainly, neuroprotection possibly. Br J Pharmacol 153(Suppl 1):S325–S338

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greisenegger S, Müllner M, Tentschert S, Lang W, Lalouschek W (2004) Effect of pretreatment with statins on the severity of acute ischemic cerebrovascular events. J Neurol Sci 221:5–10

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grotta JC, Picone CM, Ostrow PT, Strong RA, Earls RM, Yao LP, Rhoades HM, Dedman. JR (1990) CGS-19755, a competitive NMDA receptor antagonist, reduces calcium-calmodulin binding and improves outcome after global cerebral ischemia. Ann Neurol 27:612–619

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hess DC, Borlongan CV (2008) Stem cells and neurological diseases. Cell Prolif 41(Suppl 1):94–114

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks A, Jolkkonen J (2008) Challenges and possibilities of intravascular cell therapy in stroke. Acta Neurobiol Exp 68:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Higashi Y (2009) Edaravone for the treatment of acute cerebral infarction: role of endothelium-derived nitric oxide and oxidative stress. Expert Opin Pharmacother 10:323–331

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ho PW, Reutens DC, Phan TG, Wright PM, Markus R, Indra I, Young D, Donnan GA (2005) Is white matter involved in patients entered into typical trials of neuroprotection? Stroke 36:2742–2744

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horrocks LA, Farooqui AA (2004) Docosahexaenoic acid in the diet: its importance in maintenance and restoration of neural membrane function. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 70:361–372

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hossain MS, Hashimoto M, Masumura S (1998) Influence of docosahexaenoic acid on cerebral lipid peroxide level in aged rats with and without hypercholesterolemia. Neurosci Lett 244:157–160

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hossain MS, Hashimoto M, Gamoh S, Masumura S (1999) Antioxidative effects of docosahexaenoic acid in the cerebrum versus cerebellum and brainstem of aged hypercholesterolemic rats. J Neurochem 72:1133–1138

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jang YG, Ilodigwe D, Macdonald RL (2009) Metaanalysis of tirilazad mesylate in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 10:141–147

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joseph JA, Shukitt-Hale B, Lau FC (2007) Fruit polyphenols and their effects on neuronal signaling and behavior in senescence. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1100:470–485

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamei K, Maeda N, Ogino R, Koyama M, Nakajima M, Tatsuoka T, Ohno T, Inoue T (2001) New 5-HT1A receptor agonists possessing 1,4-benzoxazepine scaffold exhibit highly potent anti-ischemic effects. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 11:595–598

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kantarci A, Van Dyke TE (2003) Lipoxins in chronic inflammation. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 14:4–12

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kapadia R, Yi JH, Vemuganti R (2008) Mechanisms of anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective actions of PPAR-gamma agonists. Front Biosci 13:1813–1826

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kawasaki-Yatssugi S, Ichiki C, Yatsugi S, Takahashi M, Shimizu-Sasamata M, Yamaguchi T, Minematsu K (2000) Neuroprotective effects of an AMPA receptor antagonist YM872 in a rat transient middle cerebral artery occlusion model. Neuropharmacol 39:211–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim D, Jahan R, Starkman S, Abolian A, Kidwell CS, Vinuela F, Duckwiler GR, Ovbiagele B, Vespa B, Seico S, Rajajee V, Saver JL (2006) Endovascular mechanical clot retrieval in a broad ischemic stroke cohort. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 27:2048–2052

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krupinski J, Ferrer I, Barrachina M, Secades JJ, Mercadal J, Lozano R (2002) CDP-choline reduces pro-caspase and cleaved caspase-3 expression, nuclear DNA fragmentation, and specific PARP-cleaved products of caspase activation following middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat. Neuropharmacology 42:846–854

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Labiche LA, Grotta JC (2004) Clinical trials for cytoprotection in stroke. NeuroRx 1:46–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Lapchak PA, Zivin JA (2009) The lipophilic multifunctional antioxidant edaravone (radicut) improves behavior following embolic strokes in rabbits: a combination therapy study with tissue plasminogen activator. Exp Neurol 215:95–100

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lau FC, Shukitt-Hale B, Joseph JA (2007) Nutritional intervention in brain aging: reducing the effects of inflammation and oxidative stress. Subcell Biochem 42:299–318

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ledeen RW, Wu G (2002) Ganglioside function in calcium homeostasis and signaling. Neurochem Res 27:637–647

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lees KR, Zivin JA, Ashwood T, Davalos A, Davis SM, Diener HC, Grotta J, Lyden P, Shuaib A, Hårdemark HG, Wasiewski WW (2006) Stroke-Acute Ischemic NXY Treatment (SAINT I) Trial Investigators. NXY-059 for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 354:588–600

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lo EH, Dalkara T, Moskowitz MA (2003) Mechanisms, challenges and opportunities in stroke. Nat Rev Neurosci 4:399–415

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loor G, Schumacker PT (2008) Role of hypoxia-inducible factor in cell survival during myocardial ischemia-reperfusion. Cell Death Differ 15:686–690

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez-Miranda J, Delgado-Lista J, Perez-Martinez P, Jimenez-Gómez Y, Fuentes F, Ruano J, Marin C (2007) Olive oil and the haemostatic system. Mol Nutr Food Res 51:1249–1259

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCulloch J, Dewar D (2001) A radical approach to stroke therapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:10989–10991

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mir C, Clotet J, Aledo R, Durany N, Argemí J, Lozano R, Cervós-Navarro J, Casals N (2003) CDP-choline prevents glutamate-mediated cell death in cerebellar granule neurons. J Mol Neurosci 20:53–60

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morimoto K, Murasugi T, Oda T (2002) Acute neuroinflammation exacerbates excitotoxicity in rat hippocampus in vivo. Exp Neurol 177:95–104

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Newman MB, Willing AE, Manresa JJ, Davis-Sanberg C, Sanberg PR (2005) Stroke-induced migration of human umbilical cord blood cells: time course and cytokines. Stem Cell Dev 14:576–586

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • No author listed (2000) Tirilazad mesylate in acute ischemic stroke: a systematic review. Tirilazad Int Steering Comm Stroke 31:2257–2265

    Google Scholar 

  • Norel X, Brink C (2004) The quest for new cysteinyl-leukotriene and lipoxin receptors: recent clues. Pharmacol Ther 103:81–94

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okada M, Amamoto T, Tomonaga M, Kawachi A, Yazawa K, Mine K, Fujiwara M (1996) The chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid reduces the spatial cognitive deficit following transient forebrain ischemia in rats. Neuroscience 71:17–25

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okajima K, Harada N (2008) Promotion of insulin-like growth factor-I production by sensory neuron stimulation; molecular mechanism(s) and therapeutic implications. Curr Med Chem 15:3095–3112

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ohtani R, Tomimoto H, Wakita H, Kitaguchi H, Nakaji K, Takahashi R (2007) Expression of S100 protein and protective effect of arundic acid on the rat brain in chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Brain Res 1135:195–200

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papademetriou V, Doumas M (2009) Treatment strategies to prevent stroke: focus on optimal lipid and blood pressure control. Expert Opin Pharmacother 10:955–966

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parnetti L, Caso V, Lanari A, Saggese E, Sebastianelli M, Tayebati SK, Amenta F (2006) Stroke prevention and statin treatment. Clin Exp Hyperten 28:335–344

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patzer A, Zhao Y, Stock I, Gohlke P, Ferdegen T, Culman J (2008) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors gamma (PPARgamma) differently modulate the interleukin-6 expression in the peri-infarct cortical tissue in the acute and delayed phases of cerebral ischaemia. Eur J Neurosci 28:1786–1794

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelleymounter MA, Cullen MJ, Baker MB, Gollub M, Wellman C (1996) The effects of intrahippocampal BDNF and NGF on spatial learning in aged Long Evans rats. Mol Chem Neuropathol 29:211–226

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pizzi M, Sarinico I, Boroni F, Benetti A, Benarese M, Spano PF (2005) Inhibition of IkappaBalpha phosphorylation prevents glutamate-induced NF-kappaB activation and neuronal cell death. Acta Neurochir Suppl 93:59–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plataras C, Angelogianni P, Tsakiris S (2003) Effect of CDP-choline on hippocampal acetylcholinesterase and Na+,K+-ATPase in adult and aged rats. Z Naturforsch 58:277–281

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ploughman M, Granter-Button S, Chernenko G, Attwood Z, Tucker BA, Mearow KM, Corbett D (2007) Exercise intensity influences the temporal profile of growth factors involved in neuronal plasticity following focal ischemia. Brain Res 1150:207–216

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ran R, Xu H, Lu A, Bernaudin M, Sharp FR (2005) Hypoxia preconditioning in the brain. Dev Neurosci 27:87–92

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rincon F, Sacco RL (2008) Secondary stroke prevention. J Cardiovasc Nurs 23:34–41

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Romero JR (2007) Prevention of ischemic stroke: overview of traditional risk factors. Curr Drug Targets 8:794–801

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Romero JR, Morris J, Pikula A (2008) Stroke prevention: modifying risk factors. Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis 2:287–303

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossini PM, Altamura C, Ferreri F, Melgari JM, Tecchio M, Pasgualetti P, Vernieri F (2007) Neuroimaging experimental studies on brain plasticity in recovery from stroke. Eura Midicophys 43:241–254

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sare GM, Geeganage C, Bath PM (2009) High blood pressure in acute ischaemic stroke-broadening therapeutic horizons. Cerebrovasc Dis 27(Suppl 1):156–161

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saver JL (2008) Citicoline: update on a promising and widely available agent for neuroprotection and neurorepair. Rev Neurol Dis 5:167–177

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schäbitz WR, Li F, Fisher M (2000) The N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist CNS 1102 protects cerebral gray and white matter from ischemic injury following temporary focal ischemia in rats. Stroke 31:1709–1714

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Secades JJ, Lorenzo JL (2006) Citicoline pharmacological and clinical review, update. Methods Find Exp. Clin Pharmacol 28(Suppl B):1–56

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Serhan CN, Arita M, Hong S, Gotlinger K (2004) Resolvins, docosatrienes, and neuroprotectins, novel omega-3-derived mediators, and their endogenous aspirin-triggered epimers. Lipids 39:1125–1132

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Serhan CN (2005a) Novel ω-3-derived local mediators in anti-inflammation and resolution. Pharmacol Ther 105:7–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Serhan CN (2005b) Novel eicosanoid and docosanoid mediators: resolvins, docosatrienes, and neuroprotectins. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 8:115–121

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Serhan CN, Brain SD, Buckley CD, Gilroy DW, Haslett C, O’Neill LAJ, Perretti M, Rossi AG, Wallace JL (2007) Resolution of inflammation: state of the art, definitions and terms. FASEB J 21:325–332

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharp FR, Ran R, Lu A, Tang Y, Strauss KI, Glass T, Ardizzone T, Bernaudin M (2004) Hypoxic preconditioning protects against ischemic brain injury. NeuroRx 1:26–35

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shen WH, Zhang CY, Zhang GY (2003) Antioxidants attenuate reperfusion injury after global brain ischemia through inhibiting nuclear factor-kappa B activity in rats. Acta Pharmacol Sin 24:1125–1130

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shi H (2009) Hypoxia inducible factor-1 as a therapeutic target in ischemic stroke. Curr Med Chem 16:4593–4600

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shimizu-Sasamata M, Kawasaki-Yatsugi S, Okada M, Sakamoto S, Yatsugi S, Togami J, Hatanaka K, Ohmori J, Koshiya K, Usuda S, Murase K (1996) YM90K: pharmacological characterization as a selective and potent alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate/kainate receptor antagonist. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 276:84–92

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shuaib A, Lees KR, Lyden P, Grotta J, Davalos A, Davis SM, Diener HC, Ashwood T, Wasiewski WW, Emeribe U SAINT II Trial Investigators (2007) NXY-059 for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 357:562–571

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shuaib A, Hussain MS (2008) The past and future of neuroprotection in cerebral ischaemic stroke. Eur Neurol 59:4–14

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith WS (2006) Safety of mechanical thrombectomy and intravenous tissue plasminogen activator in acute ischemic stroke. Results of the multi Mechanical Embolus Removal in Cerebral Ischemia (MERCI) trial, part I. AJNR Am J. Neuroradiol 27:1177–1182

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simopoulos AP (2006) Evolutionary aspects of diet, the omega-6/omega-3 ratio and genetic variation: nutritional implications for chronic diseases. Biomed Pharmacother 60:502–507

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singhal AB (2006) Oxygen therapy in stroke: past, present, and future. Int J Stroke 1:191–200

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singhal AB (2007) A review of oxygen therapy in ischemic stroke. Neurol Res 29:173–183

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sobrado M, López MG, Carceller F, García AG, Roda JM (2003) Combined nimodipine and citicoline reduce infarct size, attenuate apoptosis and increase bcl-2 expression after focal cerebral ischemia. Neuroscience 118:107–113

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strokin M, Chechneva O, Reymann KG, Reiser G (2006) Neuroprotection of rat hippocampal slices exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation by enrichment with docosahexaenoic acid and by inhibition of hydrolysis of docosahexaenoic acid-containing phospholipids by calcium independent phospholipase A2. Neuroscience 140:547–553

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Su EJ, Fredriksson L, Geyer M, Folestad E, Cale J, Andrae J, Gao Y, Pietras K, Mann K, Yepes M, Strickland DK, Betsholtz C, Eriksson U, Lawrence DA (2008) Activation of PDGF-CC by tissue plasminogen activator impairs blood-brain barrier integrity during ischemic stroke. Nat Med 14:731–737

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sun GY, Horrocks LA, Farooqui AA (2007) The roles of NADPH oxidase and phospholipases A2 in oxidative and inflammatory responses in neurodegenerative diseases. J Neurochem 103:1–16

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Takeda H, Spatz M, Ruetzler C, McCarron R, Becker K, Hallenbeck J (2002) Induction of mucosal tolerance to E-selectin prevents ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke in spontaneously hypertensive genetically stroke-prone rats. Stroke 33:2156–2163

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tan DX, Manchester LC, Sainz R, Mayo JC, Alvares FL, Reiter RJ (2003) Antioxidant strategies in protection against neurodegenerative disorders. Expert Opin Ther Patents 13:1513–1543

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teal P, Silver FL, Simard D (2005) The BRAINS study: safety, tolerability, and dose-finding of repinotan in acute stroke. Can J Neurol Sci 32:61–67

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Terano T, Fujishiro S, Ban T, Yamamoto K, Tanaka T, Noguchi Y, Tamura Y, Yazawa K, Hirayama T (1999) Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation improves the moderately severe dementia from thrombotic cerebrovascular diseases. Lipids 34 Suppl:S345–S346

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trejo JL, Carro E, Nunez A, Torres-Aleman I (2002) Sedentary life impairs self-reparative processes in the brain: the role of serum insulin-like growth factor-I. Rev Neurosci 13:365–374

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vaynman S, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F (2004) Hippocampal BDNF mediates the efficacy of exercise on synaptic plasticity and cognition. Eur J Neurosci 20:2580–2590

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaynman S, Gomez-Pinilla F (2006) Revenge of the “sit”: how lifestyle impacts neuronal and cognitive health through molecular systems that interface energy metabolism with neuronal plasticity. J Neurosci Res 84:699–715

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vaynman S, Ying Z, Wu A, Gomez-Pinilla F (2006) Coupling energy metabolism with a mechanism to support brain-derived neurotrophic factor-mediated synaptic plasticity. Neuroscience 139:1221–1234

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vendrame M, Cassady J, Newcomb J, Butler T, Pennypacker KR, Zigova T, Sanberg CD, Sanberg PR, Willing AE (2004) Infusion of human umbilical cord blood cells in a rat model of stroke dose-dependently rescues behavioral deficits and reduces infarct volume. Stroke 35:2390–2395

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vendrame M, Gemma C, de Mesquita D, Collier L, Bickford PC, Sanberg CD, Sanberg PR, Pennypacker KR, Willing AE (2005) Anti-inflammatory effects of human cord blood cells in a rat model of stroke. Stem Cell Dev 14:595–604

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang JY, Wen LL, Huang YN, Chen YT, Ku MC (2006) Dual effects of antioxidants in neurodegeneration: direct neuroprotection against oxidative stress and indirect protection via suppression of glia-mediated inflammation. Curr Pharmaceut Design 12:3521–3533

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wardlaw JM, Zoppo G, Yamaguchi T, Berge E (2003) Thrombolysis for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3:CD000213

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster BR, Celnik PA, Cohen LG (2006) Noninvasive brain stimulation in stroke rehabilitation. NeuroRx 3:474–481

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wen W, Sachdev PS (2004) Extent and distribution of white matter hyperintensities in stroke patients: the Sydney Stroke Study. Stroke 35:2813–2819

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xing B, Xin T, Hunter RL, Bing G (2008) Pioglitazone inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide synthase is associated with altered activity of p38 MAP kinase and PI3K/Akt. J Neuroinflammation 5:4

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang Y, Li Q, Yang T, Hussain M, Shuaib A (2003) Reduced brain infarct volume and improved neurological outcome by inhibition of the NR2B subunit of NMDA receptors by using CP101,606-27 alone and in combination with rt-PA in a thromboembolic stroke model in rats. J Neurosurg 98:397–403

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshida H, Yanai H, Namiki Y, Fukatsu-Sasaki K, Furutani N, Tada N (2006) Neuroprotective effects of edaravone: a novel free radical scavenger in cerebrovascular injury. CNS Drug Rev 12:9–20

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu G, Borlongan CV, Stahl CE, Hess DC, Ou Y, Kaneko Y, Yu SJ, Yang T, Fang L, Xie X (2009) Systemic delivery of umbilical cord blood cells for stroke therapy: a review. Restor Neurol Neurosci 27:41–54

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao Y, Patzer A, Herdegen T, Gohlke P, Culman J (2006) Activation of cerebral peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors gamma promotes neuroprotection by attenuation of neuronal cyclooxygenase-2 overexpression after focal cerebral ischemia in rats. FASEB J 20:1162–1175

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou Y, Xiong Y, Yuan SY (2009) Effect of tacrolimus on growth-associated protein-43 expression in the hippocampus of neonatal rats with hypoxic-ischemic brain damage. Zhongguo Dang Dai Er Ke Za Zhi 11:65–68

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zivin JA (1998) Factors determining the therapeutic window for stroke. Neurology 50:599–603

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Akhlaq A. Farooqui .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Farooqui, A.A. (2010). Potential Neuroprotective Strategies for Ischemic Injury. In: Neurochemical Aspects of Neurotraumatic and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6652-0_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics