Abstract
This chapter presents results from a fear mapping study carried out in 2004 in Kings Cross, New South Wales (Australia), an area historically associated with crime and fear. Fear of crime was first examined using traditional global cognitive-based and crime-specific avoidance-based measurement approaches. An examination of the dissonant results produced by these two contrasting methods provided some useful insights for fear-of-crime research and asserted the appropriateness of crime-specific avoidance-based approaches when measuring and mapping fear of crime. A series of 2D and 3D fear maps showing areas of collective avoidance in Kings Cross were produced. Obvious fear hotspots, as well as streets perceived to be safe thoroughfares through those fear hotspots, were revealed. An investigation into the actual presence of crime in Kings Cross was then carried out and a distinct mismatch between the incidence of and fear of crime was found. This alerted the NSW Police to areas of unreported criminal activity and disorderly behaviour. The perceived presence of 16 social and physical environmental cues was also mapped to further investigate why people were afraid of crime. This exploration illustrated that each of the environmental cues triggered different levels of fear and distinct patterns of avoidance. This provided an evidence base for police and council when allocating resources to specific environmental cues in critical fear hotspots. An exploration of the avoidance reaction adopted by different socio-demographic groups in response to drug users and sex workers was additionally carried out. Separate maps were produced for men and women, residents of, and visitors to, Kings Cross. These maps provided some new spatially sensitive intelligence into how different people react to fear of crime through avoidance.
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Notes
- 1.
The ABS’s 2006 General Social Survey found that less than half (48%) of people reported feeling safe or very safe walking alone in their local area at night (ABS, 2006). The ABS’s 2005 Crime and Safety Survey found that 4% (day) and 8% (night) of respondents felt unsafe or very unsafe when at home alone during the day and night respectively (ABS, 2005). The ABS’s 2002 Crime and Safety Survey found that 4% (day) and 10% (night) of respondents felt unsafe or very unsafe when at home alone during the day and night respectively (ABS, 2002a).
- 2.
Thirty-two percent of the inner-east population over the age of 18 years.
- 3.
Using the levels of fear experienced by the respondents in the northern half of the study site as a benchmark.
- 4.
Researchers agree that people exhibit more fear after dark. Physically, the reduction in visibility and recognition abilities, and the creation of blind spots, shadows and potential places of entrapment could play a role (Fisher and Nasar, 1995; Nasar and Jones, 1997; Painter, 1996; Samuels and Judd, 2002).
- 5.
Junkies are colloquially known as intravenous drug users , users of other illicit drugs and drug dealers (Darcy, Personal communication 12/3/04).
- 6.
The Razor Gangs’ Kellett Street riot of 1929, reportedly one of Sydney’s most vicious riots, is now acknowledged in The City’s pavement signage on the corner of Kellett Street and Bayswater Road (SESIAHS, 2005).
- 7.
The history of such motorcycle groups and their prominent members is acknowledged on a tree plaque in Kings Cross.
- 8.
Various newspaper articles published after the interviewing for this study also indicate that gang- related crime still occurs in Kings Cross. For example, there was the fatal gang shooting of a member of the Bandidos Motorcycle Club in Chapel Street during April 2006 and the shooting of a Kings Cross club bouncer by a Hells Angel bikie member in February 2006 (Braithwaite and Baker, 2007; Cummings, 2007). Referring to a police crackdown on bikies through Operation Ranmore, the Gangs Squad Commander Scott Whyte reported that ‘by week three [of the operation] there was no evidence of bikies … in Kings Cross. That’s something that hasn’t been seen for many years’ (Braithwaite, 2007).
- 9.
ESNA also describes multiple other dangers and nuisances arising from the presence of street sex workers (ESNA, 2002).
- 10.
This includes commercial brothels, local business brothels, safe house brothels for street workers, escort agencies offering sexual services, restricted premises and sex on premises venues, bondage and discipline venues, swingers clubs and the like, but does not include private sex workers home-business premises (CoSC, 2006 h).
- 11.
Those residents who have strong place attachments are often those who have resided in the neighbourhood through times of decline and high residential turnover, are older and own their own homes (Brown et al., 2003).
- 12.
Women’s comparative fearfulness is the most consistent result within the research field (see also: Gibson et al., 2002; Hanson et al., 2000; Kanan and Pruitt, 2002; Toseland, 1982; Riger, 1978 [Braugart et al., 1980; Lebowitz, 1975 cited in Clarke and Lewis, 1982]; [Anderson and Leitch, 1996; Mirrlees-Black et al., 1996; Pain, 1993 cited in Gilchrist et al., 1998]; LaGrange and Ferraro, 1989; Gray and O’Conner, 1990; Pain, 2000).
- 13.
- 14.
Additionally, 87.5% of the ‘persons of interest’ in assaults in inner Sydney are male (Briscoe and Donnelly, 2001).
- 15.
The environmental cues are not discussed with reference to findings from previous studies examining the link between environmental cues and fear of crime. This is because comparisons between studies are problematic due to vastly varying research methods. For instance it is unlikely the environmental cues would have the same effect on the formless levels of fear examined in most studies, as on the levels of avoidance examined in this research. Therefore comparing the results is somewhat ineffective.
- 16.
Intoxicated persons triggered fear of crime in 54% (day) and 55% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 17.
Drug users triggered fear of crime in 64% (day) and 64% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 18.
Intoxicated persons triggered fear of crime in 54% (day) and 55% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 19.
Gangs triggered fear of crime in 57% (day) and 56% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 20.
- 21.
Laneways triggered fear of crime in 45% (day) and 50% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 22.
According to Darcy’s (2005) study in 2003, laneways were ranked as the equal least common reason for making the public feel unsafe. Dark laneways were ranked as the equal fourth most common reason for making the public feel unsafe.
- 23.
Generally, this policy states that laneways will be improved with appropriate lighting (CoS, 1999). This plan may help reduce the extent to which laneways trigger public fear of crime.
- 24.
Rubbish /syringes triggered fear of crime in 44% (day) and 48% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 25.
According to Darcy’s (2005) study in 2003, lack of cleanliness was ranked as the equal second least common reason for making the public feel unsafe.
- 26.
This plan also demonstrates The City’s ‘commitment to public health, harm reduction and the improvement of safety and cleanliness of the public domain for the entire community – residents , visitors and workers alike’ (CoSC, 2006 g).
- 27.
Areas to hide triggered fear of crime in 39% (day) and 43% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 28.
Loitering people triggered fear of crime in 43% (day) and 46% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 29.
According to Darcy’s (2005) study in 2003, loitering people were ranked as the equal least common reason for making the public feel unsafe.
- 30.
Similarly, The City also demanded that another application be approved for Kings Cross if the management or licensee of the premises is responsible for ensuring loitering patrons do not detrimentally affect the amenity of the neighbourhood (CoSC, 2006e). The management was also held responsible for ‘the control of noise, loitering and litter generated by patrons of the premises and shall ensure that people leave the premises and area in an orderly manner’ (CoSC, 2006e).
- 31.
Blocked escape triggered fear of crime in 35% (day) and 36% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 32.
Poor street lighting triggered fear of crime in 36% (day) and 52% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 33.
The fact that poor street lighting also triggered a fear-of-crime response during the day could suggest this issue is a very salient issue in the minds of the respondents, that some streets like small laneways need street lighting during the day, or that there were problems with the survey interviewing procedure.
- 34.
According to Darcy’s (2005) study in 2003, lighting was ranked as the equal second least common reason for making the public feel unsafe.
- 35.
Pedestrian absence triggered fear of crime in 33% (day) and 37% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 36.
Rundown/abandoned buildings triggered fear of crime in 25% (day) and 32% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 37.
Consolidated in 2001.
- 38.
The plan states ‘it is important that construction sites and vacant sites present an attractive appearance to the streets and public areas in order to enhance the amenity of Central Sydney’ (CoSC, 2001).
- 39.
Homeless people triggered fear of crime in 33% (day) and 31% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 40.
As mentioned earlier drug users /homeless were ranked as the most common reason for making the public feel unsafe in Darcy’s (2005) study in 2003. The results from this study suggest that the drug users /homeless category in Darcy’s study was ranked high because of the existence of drug users within it.
- 41.
Vandalism triggered fear of crime in 25% (day) and 29% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 42.
Offensive/degraded shops triggered fear of crime in 21% (day) and 25% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 43.
The act documents that ‘any person who carries on, or who is engaged in, the business of selling or disposing of products to which this section applies must not: Advertise, or cause another person to advertise, in any manner the nature of that business, or exhibit or display any such products: (i) to a person who has not consented to or requested the exhibition or display, or (ii) in a manner so that they can be seen from outside the premises of the business by members of the public’ (CoSS, 2000).
- 44.
Consolidated in 2005.
- 45.
Spruikers triggered fear of crime in 22% (day) and 25% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 46.
As mentioned earlier spruikers / intoxicated persons were ranked as the third most common reason for making the public feel unsafe in Darcy’s (2005) study in 2003. The results from this study suggest that the spruikers / intoxicated persons category in Darcy’s study was ranked high because of the existence of intoxicated persons within it.
- 47.
Sex workers triggered fear of crime in 18% (day) and 20% (night) of the avoiding respondents.
- 48.
According to Darcy’s (2005) study in 2003, sex workers were ranked as the second most common reason for making the public feel unsafe. The contrasting result from this study is noteworthy, however not necessarily surprising given the different research approaches taken in the two studies.
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Doran, B.J., Burgess, M.B. (2012). The Kings Cross Study. In: Putting Fear of Crime on the Map. Springer Series on Evidence-Based Crime Policy. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-5647-7_7
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