Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Handbook of Pain and Palliative Care pp 213–229Cite as

Pain, Whiplash Disorder and Traffic Safety

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

  • 3304 Accesses

Abstract

Whiplash-associated disorders (WAD) are a common, disabling and costly condition that occur usually as a consequence of a motor vehicle crash (MVC) with up to 50% of injured people failing to fully recover. Current management approaches have shown limited benefits for injured people both in the acute and chronic stages of the condition. Additionally, the identification of a specific peripheral lesion is usually not possible. For these reasons, research interest has focussed on the physiological and psychological manifestations of the condition which may provide information on which to base the development of new management approaches. The aim of this chapter is to outline the physiological and psychological manifestations of whiplash as well as discuss the role that stress symptoms may play in the presentation and outcomes following whiplash injury. The implications for management as well as future directions for research will be discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   349.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   449.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   599.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Banic, B., Petersen-Felix, S., Andersen, O., Radanov, B., Villiger, P., Arendt-Nielsen, L., et al. (2004). Evidence for spinal cord hypersensitivity in chronic pain after whiplash injury and in fibromyalgia. Pain, 107(1–2), 7–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blincoe, L., Seay, A., Zaloshnja, E., Miller, T., Romano, E., Luchter, S., et al. (2002). Economic impact of motor vehicle crashes 2000. Washington: Department of Transportation (US), National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogduk, N. (2002). Point of view. Spine, 27(17), 1940–1941.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buitenhuis, J., DeJong, J., Jaspers, J., & Groothoff, J. (2006). Relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and the course of whiplash complaints. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61(3), 681–689.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buitenhuis, J., deJong, P., Jaspers, J., & Kenardy, J. (2011). Psychological aspects of whiplash associated disorders. In M. Sterling & J. Kenardy (Eds.), Whiplash: Evidence-base for clinical practice. Australia: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buitenhuis, J., Spanjer, J., & Fidler, V. (2003). Recovery from acute whiplash – The role of coping styles. Spine, 28(9), 896–901.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bunketorp-Kall, L., Andersson, G., & Asker, B. (2007). The impact of subacute whiplash-associated disorders on functional self-efficacy: A cohort study. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 30(3), 221–226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, L., Cassidy, D., & Cote, P. (2006). The role of pain coping strategies in prognosis after whiplash injury: Passive coping predicts slowed recovery. Pain, 124(1–2), 18–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, L., Holm, L., Hogg-Johnson, S., Cote, P., Cassidy, D., Haldeman, S., et al. (2008). Course and prognostic factors for neck pain in Whiplash-Associated Disorders (WAD). Results of the bone and joint decade 2000–2010 task force on neck pain and its associated disorders. Spine, 33(42), 583–592.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carstensen, T., Frostholm, L., Oernboel, E., Kongsted, A., Kasch, H., Jensen, T., et al. (2008). Post-trauma ratings of pre-collision pain and psychological distress predict poor outcome following acute whiplash trauma: A 12-month follow-up study. Pain, 139(2), 248–259.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chien, A., Eliav, E., & Sterling, M. (2008). Hypoaesthesia occurs in acute whiplash irrespective of pain and disability levels and the presence of sensory hypersensitivity. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 24(9), 759–766.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chien, A., Eliav, E., & Sterling, M. (2010). The development of sensory hypoaesthesia following whiplash injury. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 26, 722–728.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chou, R., & Huffman, L. (2007). Medications for acute and chronic low back pain: A review of the evidence for an American Pain Society/American College of Physicians clinical practice guideline. Annals of Internal Medicine, 147(7), 505–514.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chu, J., Eun, S., & Schwartz, J. (2005). Quantitative motor unit action potentials (QUAMP) in whiplash patients with neck and upper limb pain. Electromyography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 45(6), 323–328.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cote, P., Hogg-Johnson, S., Cassidy, D., Carroll, L., Frank, J., & Bombardier, C. (2005). Initial patterns of clinical care and recovery from whiplash injuries. Archives of Internal Medicine, 165, 2257–2263.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crowe, H. (1964). A new diagnostic sign in neck injuries. California Medicine, 100, 12–13.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curatolo, M., & Sterling, M. (2011). Pain-processing mechanisms in whiplash associated disorders. In M. Sterling & J. Kenardy (Eds.), Whiplash: Evidence-base for clinical practice. Australia: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daly, E., & Bialocerkowski, A. (2009). Does evidence support physiotherapy management of adult Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Type One? A systematic review. European Journal of Pain, 13(4), 339–353.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diatchenko, L., Slade, G., Nackley, A., Bhalang, K., Sigurdsson, A., Belfer, I., et al. (2005). Genetic basis for individual variations in pain perception and the development of a chronic pain condition. Human Molecular Genetics, 14, 135–143.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlert, U., Gaab, J., & Heinrichs, M. (2001). Psychoneuroendocrinological contributions to the etiology of depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and stress-related bodily disorders: the role of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 141–152.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, J., Jull, G., Noteboom, T., Darnell, R., Galloway, G., & Gibbon, W. (2006). Fatty infiltration in the cervical extensor muscles in persistent whiplash associated disorders: An MRI analysis. Spine, 31(22), E847–E851.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, J., Jull, G., Sterling, M., Noteboom, T., Darnell, R., & Galloway, G. (2008). Fatty infiltrate in the cervical extensor muscles is not a feature of chronic insidious onset neck pain. Clinical Radiology, 63(6), 681–687.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, J., O’Leary, S., Sterling, M., Hendrikz, J., Pedler, A., & Jull, G. (2010). MRI findings of fatty infiltrate in the cervical flexors in chronic whiplash. Spine, 35(9), 948–954.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, J., et al. (2011). The temporal development of fatty infiltrates in the neck muscles following whiplash injury: an association with pain and posttraumatic stress. Plos One, 6(6), e21194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, J., Sterling, M., Noteboom, T., Treleaven, J., Galloway, G., & Jull, G. (2009). The clinical presentation of chronic whiplash and the relationship to findings of MRI fatty infiltrates in the cervical extensor musculature: A preliminary investigation. European Spine Journal, 18(9), 1371–1378.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Falla, D., Jull, G., & Hodges, P. (2004). Neck pain patients demonstrate reduced EMG activity of the deep cervical flexor muscles during performance of the cranio-cervical flexion test. Spine, 29(19), 2108–2114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrari, R. (2001). Whiplash and symptom amplification. Pain, 89, 293–294.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forbes, D., Creamer, M., Phelps, A., Bryant, R., McFarlane, A., Devilly, G., et al. (2007). Australian guidelines for the treatment of adults with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41, 637–648.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaab, J., Baumann, S., Budnoik, A., Gmunder, H., Hottinger, N., & Ehlert, U. (2005). Reduced reactivity and ehnanced negative feedback sensitivity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis in chronic whiplash associated disorders. Pain, 119, 219–224.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gatchel, R. J., Haggard, R., Thomas, C., & Howard, K. J. (2011). A biopsychosocial approach to understanding chronic pain and disability. In R. J. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of pain and palliative care: Biobehavioral approaches for the life course. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gockel, M., Lindholm, H., Niemisto, L., & Hurri, H. (2008). Perceived disability but not pain is connected with autonomic nervous system function among people with chronic low back pain. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 40, 355–358.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greening, J., Dilley, A., & Lynn, B. (2005). In vivo study of nerve movement and mechanosensitivity of the median nerve in whiplash and non-specific arm pain patients. Pain, 115(3), 248–253.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greening, J., Lynn, B., & Leary, R. (2003). Sensory and autonomic function in the hands of patients with non-specific arm pain (NSAP) and asymptomatic office workers. Pain, 104, 275–281.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haanpaa, M., Backonja, M., Bennett, M., Bouhassira, D., Cruccu, G., Hansson, P., et al. (2009). Assessment of neuropathic pain in primary care. The American Journal of Medicine, 122(10S), S13–S21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haines, T., Gross, A., Burnie, S., Goldsmith, C., & Perry, J. (2009). Patient education for neck pain with or without radiculopathy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (4), CD005106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hellstrom, F., Roatta, S., Thunberg, J., Passatore, M., & Djupsjobacka, M. (2005). Responses of muscle spindles in feline dorsal neck muscles to electrical stimulation of the cervical sympathetic nerve. Experimental Brain Research, 165, 328–342.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hildingsson, C., & Toolanen, G. (1990). Outcome after soft-tissue injury of the cervical spine: A prospective study of 93 car-accident victims. Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica, 61(4), 357–359.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hocking, L., Smith, B., Jones, G., Reid, D., Strachan, D., & Macfarlane, G. (2010). Genetic variation in the beta2-adrenergic receptor but not catecholamine-O-methyltransferase predisposes to chronic pain: Results from the 1958 British Birth Cohort Study. Pain, 149(1), 143–151.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holbrook, T., Galarneau, M., Dye, J., Quinn, K., & Dougherty, A. (2010). Morphine use after combat injury in Iraq and post-traumatic stress disorder. The New England Journal of Medicine, 362(2), 110–117.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holm, L., Carroll, L., Cassidy, D., Hogg-Johnson, S., Cote, P., Guzman, J., et al. (2008). The burden and determinants of neck pain in whiplash-associated disorders after traffic collisions. Spine, 33(4S), S52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ichihara, D., Okado, E., Chiba, K., Toyama, Y., Fuijwara, H., & Momoshima, S. (2009). Longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study on whiplash injury patients: Minimum 10-year follow-up. Journal of Orthopaedic Science, 14(5), 602–610.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ide, M., Ide, J., Yamaga, M., & Takagi, K. (2001). Symptoms and signs of irritation of the brachial plexus in whiplash injuries. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (Br), 83, 226–229.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jenewein, J., Wittmann, L., Moergeli, H., Creutzig, J., & Schnyder, U. (2009). Mutual influence of PTSD symptoms and chronic pain among injred accident survivors: A longitudinal study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(6), 540–548.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, B. (2006). Whiplash injuries can be visible by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Pain Research and Management, 11(3), 197–199.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joslin, C., Khan, S., & Bannister, G. (2004). Long-term disability after neck injury. A comparative study. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 86(7), 1032–1034.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jull, G. (2000). Deep cervical flexor muscle dysfunction in whiplash. Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain, 8(1/2), 143–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jull, G., et al. (2002). A randomised controlled trial of physiotherapy management for cervicogenic headache. Spine, 27(17), 1835–1843.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jull, G., Kristjansson, E., & Dall’Alba, P. (2004). Impairment in the cervical flexors: A comparison of whiplash and insidious onset neck pain patients. Manual Therapy, 9(2), 89–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jull, G., Sterling, M., Falla, D., Treleaven, J., & O’Leary, S. (2008). Whiplash, headache and neck pain: Research based directions for physical therapies. Edinburgh: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jull, G., Sterling, M., Kenardy, J., & Beller, E. (2007). Does the presence of sensory hypersensitivity influence outcomes of physical rehabilitation for chronic whiplash? – A preliminary RCT. Pain, 129(2), 28–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaale, B., Krakenes, J., Albrektsen, G., & Webster, K. (2005). WAD impairment rating: Neck Disability Index score according to severity of MRI findings of ligements and membranes in the upper cervical spine. Journal of Neurotrauma, 4, 466–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamper, S., Rebbeck, T., Maher, C., McAuley, J., & Sterling, M. (2008). Course and prognostic factors of whiplash: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain, 138(3), 617–629.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kasch, H., Qerama, E., Bach, F., & Jensen, T. (2005). Reduced cold pressor pain tolerance in non-recovered whiplash patients: A 1 year prospective study. European Journal of Pain, 9(5), 561–569.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kasch, H., Stengaard-Pedersen, K., Arendt-Nielsen, L., & Staehelin Jensen, T. (2001). Pain thresholds and tenderness in neck and head following acute whiplash injury: A prospective study. Cephalalgia, 21, 189–197.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kivioja, J., Jensen, I., & Lindgren, U. (2005). Early coping strategies do not influence the prognosis after whiplash injuries. Injury, 36, 935–940.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kivioja, J., Sjalin, M., & Lindgren, U. (2004). Psychiatric morbidity in patients with chronic whiplash associated disorder. Spine, 29(11), 1235–1239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koelbaek-Johansen, M., Graven-Nielsen, T., Schou-Olesen, A., & Arendt-Nielsen, L. (1999). Muscular hyperalgesia and referred pain in chronic whiplash syndrome. Pain, 83, 229–234.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kongsted, A., Leboeuf-Yde, C., Korsholm, L., & Bendix, T. (2008a). Are altered smooth pursuit eye movements related to chronic pain and disability following whiplash injuries? A prospective trial with one-year follow-up. Clinical Rehabilitation, 22, 469–479.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kongsted, A., Qerama, E., Kasch, H., Bach, F., Korsholm, L., Jensen, T., et al. (2008b). Education of patients after whiplash injury: Is oral advice any better than a pamphlett? Spine, 33(22), E843–E848.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krakenes, J., Kaale, B., Moen, G., Nordli, H., Gilhus, N., & Rorvik, J. (2002). MRI assessment of the alar ligaments in the late stage of whiplash injury – a study of structural abnormalities and observer agreement. Neuroradiology, 44(7), 617–624.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krakenes, J., Kaale, B., Moen, G., Nordli, H., Gilhus, N., & Rorvik, J. (2003). MRI of the tectorial and posterior atlanto-occipital membranes in the late stage of whiplash injury. Neuroradiology, 44(6), 637–644.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuch, K., Cox, B., Evans, R., & Shulman, I. (1994). Phobias, panic and pain in 55 survivors of road vehicle accidents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 8(2), 181–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindstrom, R., Schomacher, J., Farina, D., Rechter, L., & Falla, D. (2011). Association between neck muscle coactivation, pain, and strength in women with neck pain. Manual Therapy, 16(1), 80–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, S., Barnsley, L., Wallis, B., & Bogduk, N. (1996a). Chronic cervical zygapophysial joint pain after whiplash: A placebo-controlled prevalence study including commentary by Derby R Jr. Spine, 21(15), 1737–1745.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, S., Barnsley, L., Wallis, B., McDonald, G., & Bogduk, N. (1996b). Percutaneous radiofrequency neurotomy for chronic cervical zygapophyseal joint pain. The New England Journal of Medicine, 335(23), 1721–1726.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MAA. (2007). Guidelines for the management of whiplash associated disorders. Sydney: Motor Accident Authority (NSW). www.maa.nsw.gov.au.

  • Macintyre, P., Scott, D., Schug, S., Visser, E., & Walker, S. (2010). Acute pain management: Scientific evidence. Melbourne: ANZVA & FPM.

    Google Scholar 

  • MAIC. (2002). Whiplash – Review of CTP Queensland data to 31 Dec 2001. Brisbane: MAIC.

    Google Scholar 

  • MAIC. (2009). Annual report. Brisbane.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malleson, A. (2002). Whiplash and other useful illnesses. Quebec: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez-Lavin, M. (2007). Stree, the stress response system, and fibromyalgia. Arthritis Research & Therapy, 9(4), 216–223.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • May, S. (2011). Chronic low back pain. In R. J. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of pain and palliative care: Biobehavioral approaches for the life course. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLean, S., Clauw, D., Abelson, J., & Liberzon, I. (2005). The development of persistent pain and psychological morbidity after motor vehicle collision: Intergrating the potential rle of stress response systems into a biopsychosocial model. Psychosomatic Medicine, 67, 783–790.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLean, S., Diatchenko, L., Lee, M., Swor, R., Domeier, R., Jones, J., et al. (2011). Catechol O-methyltransferase haplotype predicts immediate musculoskeletal neck pain and psychological symptoms after motor vehicle collision. The Journal of Pain, 12(1), 101–107.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moog, M., Quintner, J., Hall, T., & Zusman, M. (2002). The late whiplash syndrome: A psychophysical study. European Journal of Pain, 6(4), 283–294.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, A., Jackson, A., Jordan, J., Hammersley, S., Hill, J., Mercer, C., et al. (2005). Clinical guidelines for the physiotherapy management of Whiplash associated disorder. London: The Chartered Society of Physiotherapy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moseley, G. (2006). Graded motor imagery for pathologic pain: A randomized controlled trial. Neurology, 67, 2129–2134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moseley, G., & Wiech, K. (2009). The effect of tactile discrimination training is enhanced when patients watch the reflected image of their unaffected limb during training. Pain, 144(3), 314–319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nederhand, M., Hermens, H., Ijzerman, M., Turk, D., & Zilvold, G. (2002). Cervical muscle dysfunction in chronic whiplash associated disorder grade 2. The relevance of trauma. Spine, 27(10), 1056–1061.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neziri, A., Andersen, O., Petersen-Felix, S., Radanov, B., Dichenson, A., Scaramozzino, P., et al. (2010). The nociceptive withdrawal reflex: Normative values of thresholds and reflex receptive fields. European Journal of Pain, 14(2), 134–141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • NSW, M. (1999). Whiplash and the NSW motor accidents scheme. statistical information paper No. 7. Sydney.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Donnell, M., Creamer, M., Bryant, R., Schnyder, U., & Shalev, A. (2003). Posttraumatic disorders following injury: An empirical and methodological review. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 587–603.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Donnell, M., Elliott, P., Lau, W., & Creamer, M. (2007). PTSD symptom trajectories: From early to chronic response. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 601–606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira, A., Gevirtz, R., & Hubbard, R. (2006). A psycho-educational video used in the emergency department provides effective treatment for whiplash injuries. Spine, 31(15), 1652–1657.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Passatore, M., & Roatta, S. (2006). Influence of sympathetic nervous system on sensorimotor function: Whiplash associated disorders (WAD) as a model. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 98(5), 423–449.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfirrmann, C., Binkert, C., & Zanetti, M. (2001). MR morphology of alar ligaments and occipitoatlantoaxial joints: Study in 50 asymptomatic subjects. Radiology, 218, 133–137.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, L., Carroll, L., Cassidy, D., & Cote, P. (2010). Whiplash-associated disorders: Who gets depressed? Who stays depressed? European Spine Journal, 19(6), 945–956.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Provinciali, L., Baroni, M., Illuminati, L., & Ceravolo, M. (1996). Multimodal treatment to prevent the late whiplash syndrome. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 28(2), 105–111.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Radanov, B., Sturzenegger, M., & Di Stefano, G. (1995). Long-term outcome after whiplash injury. A 2-year follow-up considering features of injury mechanism and somatic, radiologic, and psychological findings. Medicine, 74(5), 281–297.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rang, H., Bevan, S., & Dray, A. (1991). Chemical activation of nociceptive peripheral neurones. British Medical Bulletin, 47, 534–548.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rao, S. (2009). Current progress in the pharmacological therapy of fibromyalgia. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs, 18(10), 1479–1493.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rebbeck, T., Maher, C., & Refshauge, K. (2006a). Evaluating two implementation strategies for whiplash guidelines in physiotherapy: A cluster randomised trial. The Australian Journal of Physiotherapy, 52(3), 165–174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rebbeck, T., Sindhausen, D., & Cameron, I. (2006b). A prospective cohort study of health outcomes following whiplash associated disorders in an Australian population. Injury Prevention, 12, 86–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rijn, M., Marinus, J., Putter, H., & van Hilten, J. (2007). Onset and progression of dystonia in complex regional pain syndrome. Pain, 130, 287–293.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rivest, K., Cote, J., Dumas, J.-P., Sterling, M., & deSerres, S. (2010). Relationships between pain thresholds, catastrophizing and gender in acute whiplash injury. Manual Therapy, 15, 154–159.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roatta, S., Arendt-Nielsen, L., & Farina, D. (2008). Sympathetic-induced changes in discharge rate and spike-­triggered average twitch torque of low-threshold motor units in humans. The Journal of Physiology, 586, 5561–5574.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ronnen, J., de Korte, P., & Brink, P. (1996). Acute whiplash injury: Is there a role for MR imaging. Radiology, 201, 93–96.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld, M., Gunnarsson, R., & Borenstein, P. (2000). Early intervention in whiplash-associated disorders. A comparison of two protocols. Spine, 25, 1782–1787.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld, M., Seferiadis, A., Carllson, J., & Gunnarsson, R. (2003). Active intervention in patients with whiplash associated disorders improves long-term prognosis: A randomised controlled clinical trial. Spine, 28(22), 2491–2498.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld, M., Seferiadis, A., & Gunnarsson, R. (2006). Active involvement and intervention in patients exposed to whiplash trauma in automobile crashes reduces costs. Spine, 31(16), 1799–1804.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roy, S., Hol, P., & Laerum, L. (2004). Pitfalls of magnetic resonance imaging of alar ligament. Neuroradiology, 46, 392–398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheather-Reid, R., & Cohen, M. (1998). Psychophysical evidence for a neuropathic component of chronic neck pain. Pain, 75, 341–347.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sizer, P., Poorbaugh, K., & Phelps, V. (2004). Whiplash associated disorders: Pathomechanics, diagnosis and management. Pain Practice, 4(3), 249–266.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soderlund, A., & Lindberg, P. (2001). Cognit ive behavioural components in physiotherapy management of chronic whiplash associated disorders (WAD) – A randomised group study. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice, 17, 229–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, E., Ovadia, D., Nissan, M., Menahem, A., & Dekel, S. (2005). Whiplash injury: Is there a role for electromyographic studies. Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, 125(1), 46–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M. (2010). Differential development of sensory hypersensitivity and spinal cord hyperexcitability following whiplash injury. Pain, 150(3), 501–506.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., & Chadwick, B. (2010). Psychological processes in daily life with chronic Whiplash: Relations of post-traumatic stress symptoms and fear-of-pain to hourly pain and uptime. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 26(7), 573–582.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., Hendrikz, J., & Kenardy, J. (2009). Developmental trajectories of pain and disability and posttraumatic stress symptoms following whiplash injury. In Paper presented at the Australian Spine society annual meeting, Brisbane.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., Hendrikz, J., & Kenardy, J. (2010). Developmental trajectories of pain/disability and PTSD symptoms following whiplash injury. Pain, 150(1), 22–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., Jull, G., & Kenardy, J. (2006). Physical and psychological predictors of outcome following whiplash injury maintain predictive capacity at long term follow-up. Pain, 122, 102–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., Jull, G., Vicenzino, B., & Kenardy, J. (2003a). Sensory hypersensitivity occurs soon after whiplash injury and is associated with poor recovery. Pain, 104, 509–517.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., Jull, G., Vicenzino, B., & Kenardy, J. (2004). Characterisation of acute whiplash associated disorders. Spine, 29(2), 182–188.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., Jull, G., Vicenzino, B., Kenardy, J., & Darnell, R. (2005). Physical and psychological factors predict outcome following whiplash injury. Pain, 114, 141–148.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., Jull, G., Vizenzino, B., Kenardy, J., & Darnell, R. (2003b). Development of motor system dysfunction following whiplash injury. Pain, 103, 65–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., & Kenardy, J. (2006). The relationship between sensory and sympathetic nervous system changes and acute posttraumatic stress following whiplash injury – a prospective study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 60, 387–393.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., Kenardy, J., Jull, G., & Vicenzino, B. (2003c). The development of psychological changes following whiplash injury. Pain, 106(3), 481–489.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., Pettiford, C., Hodkinson, E., & Curatolo, M. (2008). Psychological factors are related to some sensory pain thresholds but not nociceptive flexion reflex threshold in chronic whiplash. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 24(2), 124–130.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., Treleaven, J., Edwards, S., & Jull, G. (2002a). Pressure pain thresholds in chronic whiplash associated disorder: Further evidence of altered central pain processing. Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain, 10(3), 69–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, M., Treleaven, J., & Jull, G. (2002b). Responses to a clinical test of mechanical provocation of nerve tissue in whiplash associated disorders. Manual Therapy, 7(2), 89–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sterner, Y., & Gerdle, B. (2004). Acute and chronic whiplash disorders – A review. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 2004(36), 193–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, M., Maher, C., Refshauge, K., Herbert, R., Bogduk, N., & Nicholas, M. (2007). Randomised controlled trial of exercise for chronic whiplash associated disorders. Pain, 128(1–2), 59–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stoney, C. (2011). Stress and pain. In R. J. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of pain and palliative care: Biobehavioral approaches for the life course. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stovner, L. (1996). The nosologic status of the whiplash syndrome: A critical review based on a methadological approach. Spine, 21(23), 2735–2746.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strawn, J., & Geracioti, T. (2008). Noradrenergic dysfunction and the psychopharmacology of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 25(3), 260–271.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, M., Stanish, W., Sullivan, M., & Tripp, D. (2002). Differential predictors of pain and disability in patients with whiplash injury. Pain Research and Management, 7(2), 68–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J., & Taylor, M. (1996). Cervical spinal injuries: An autopsy study of 109 blunt injuries. Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain, 4(4), 61–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • TRACsa. (2008). A clinical pathway for best practice management of acute and chronic whiplash-associated disorders. Adelaide: South Australian Centre for Trauma and Injury Recovery.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treleaven, J., Jull, G., & Low Choy, N. (2005a). Standing balance in persistent whiplash: A comparison between subjects with and without dizziness. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 37, 224–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Treleaven, J., Jull, G., & LowChoy, N. (2005b). Smooth pursuit neck torsion test in whiplash associated disorders: Relationship to self-eports of neck pain and disability, dizziness and anxiety. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 37, 219–223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Treleaven, J., Jull, G., & Sterling, M. (2003). Dizziness and unsteadiness following whiplash injury – Characteristic features and relationship with cervical joint position error. Journal of Rehabilitation, 34, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trotter, K. (2009). It’s only whiplash. Aren’t you over it yet, ISBN: 1451534647.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uhrenholt, L., Grunnet-Nilsson, N., & Hartvigsen, J. (2002). Cervical spine lesions after road traffic accidents. A systematic review. Spine, 27(17), 1934–1941.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vangronsveld, K., Peters, M., Goosens, M., & Vlaeyen, J. (2008). The influence of fear of movement and pain catastrophizing on daily pain and disability in individuals with acute whiplash injury: A daily diary study. Pain, 139(2), 449–457.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Velly, A. M., Chen, H., Ferreira, J. R., & Friction, J. R. (2011). Temporomandibular disorders and fibromyalgia. In R. J. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of pain and palliative care: Biobehavioral approaches for the life course. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhagen, A., Scholten-Peeters, G., van Wijngaarden, S., de Bie, R., & Bierma-Zeinstra, S. (2007). Conservative treatments for whiplash. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (2), CD003338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vlaeyen, J., Kole-Snijders, A., & Boeren, R. (1995). Fear of movement/reinjury in chronic low back pain patients and its relation to behavioural performance. Pain, 1995(62), 363–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walton, D., Pretty, J., MacDermid, J., & Teasell, R. (2009). Risk factors for persistent problems following whiplash injury: Results of a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 39(5), 334–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wand, B., O’Connell, N., & Parkitny, L. (2010). Letter to the Editor: Depression may contribute to the sensory changes in whiplash patients? Manual Therapy, 15(3): p. E1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woo, J., Yoon, K., & Yu, B. (2002). Catechol O-methyltransferase genetic polymorphism in panic disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1785–1787.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodhouse, A., & Vasseljen, O. (2008). Altered motor control patterns in whiplash and chronic neck pain. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 9, 90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wynne-Jones, G., Jones, G., Wiles, N., Silman, A., & Macfarlane, G. (2006). Predicting new onset of widespread pain following a motor vehicle collision. Journal of Rheumatology, 33, 968–974.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoganandan, N., Knowles, S., Maiman, D., & Pintar, F. (2003). Anatomic study of the morphology of the human cervical facet joint. Spine, 28, 2317–2323.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoganandan, N., Pintar, F., & Cusick, J. (2002). Biomechanical analyses of whiplash injuries using an experimental model. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 34, 663–671.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre of National Research on Disability and Rehabilitation Medicine (CONROD), The University of Qld, Herston, QLD, Australia

    Michele Sterling PhD

Authors
  1. Michele Sterling PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michele Sterling PhD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD, USA

    Rhonda J. Moore

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sterling, M. (2013). Pain, Whiplash Disorder and Traffic Safety. In: Moore, R.J. (eds) Handbook of Pain and Palliative Care. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1651-8_15

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1651-8_15

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-1650-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-1651-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation