Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

HIV–AIDS: The Neurologic and Cognitive Consequences of HIV-1 Infection

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Medical Neuropsychology

Abstract

Relatively speaking, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a recent epidemic and was only first identified in the mid 1980s. Since this time, it has become clear that HIV is an efficient negative moderator of host immune function with deadly consequences. In fact, it is estimated that nearly 60 million people have died from the consequences of the virus since the mid 1980s. Despite our current efforts at education and prevention, we continue to see increases in the number of new infections (2.5 million) each year with an estimated 33 million people throughout the world currently infected. Sub-Saharan Africa bears the brunt of the pandemic with more than half the world’s infections occurring within the region (~25 million). With infections occurring across the globe, HIV truly is a global pandemic with significant economic, political, and social ramifications.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Melrose RJ, Tinaz S, Castelo JM, et al. Compromised fronto-striatal functioning in HIV: an fMRI investigation of semantic event sequencing. Behav Brain Res. 2008;188:337–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Avison MJ, Nath A, Berger JR. Understanding pathogenesis and treatment of HIV dementia: a role for magnetic resonance? Trends Neurosci. 2002;25:468–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Scaravilli F, Bazille C, Gray F. Neuropathologic contributions to understanding AIDS and the central nervous system. Brain Pathol. 2007;17:197–208.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Anthony IC, Bell JE. The neuropathology of HIV/AIDS. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2008;20:15–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Anthony IC, Ramage SN, Carnie FW, et al. Accelerated Tau deposition in the brains of individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus-1 before and after the advent of highly active anti-retroviral therapy. Acta Neuropathol. 2006;111:529–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Brew BJ, Pemberton L, Blennow K, et al. CSF amyloid beta42 and tau levels correlate with AIDS dementia complex. Neurology. 2005;65:1490–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Green JE, Saveanu RV, Bornstein RA. The effect of previous alcohol abuse on cognitive function in HIV infection. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161:249–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Valcour V, Shikuma C, Shiramizu B, et al. Age, apolipoprotein E4, and the risk of HIV dementia: the Hawaii Aging with HIV Cohort. J Neuroimmunol. 2004;157:197–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Grant I. Neurocognitive disturbances in HIV. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2008;20:33–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. World Health Organization. Interim WHO clinical staging of HIV/AIDS and HIV/AIDS case definitions for surveillance. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Hare C. WHO staging system for HIV infection and disease in adolescents and adults, table 3; clinical overview of HIV disease. In: Peiperl L, Coffey S, Volberding PA, editors. HIV insite knowledge base. San Francisco, CA: UCSF Center for HIV Information; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Navia BA, Jordan BD, Price RW. The AIDS dementia complex: I. Clinical features. Ann Neurol. 1986;19:517–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Ghafouri M, Amini S, Khalili K, Sawaya BE. HIV-1 associated dementia: symptoms and causes. Retrovirology. 2006;3:28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Sacktor N, McDermott MP, Marder K, et al. HIV-associated cognitive impairment before and after the advent of combination therapy. J Neurovirol. 2002;8:136–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Antinori A, Arendt G, Becker JT, et al. Updated research nosology for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Neurology. 2007;69:1789–99.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Hardy DJ, Hinkin CH. Reaction time performance in adults with HIV/AIDS. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2002;24:912–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Lezak MD, Howieson DB, Loring DW. Orientation and attention. 4th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Heaton RK, Grant I, Butters N, et al. The HNRC 500 – neuropsychology of HIV infection at different disease stages. HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1995;1:231–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Hinkin CH, Castellon SA, van Gorp WG, Satz P. Neuropsychological features of HIV disease. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Hinkin CH, Castellon SA, Hardy DJ. Dual task performance in HIV-1 infection. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2000;22:16–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Martin EM, Pitrak DL, Robertson LC, Novak RM, Mullane KM, Pursell KJ. Global-local analysis in HIV-1 infection. Neuropsychology. 1995;9:102–09.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Maruff P, Malone V, McArthur-Jackson C, et al. Abnormalities of visual spatial attention in HIV infection and the HIV-associated dementia complex. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1995;7:325–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Sorenson DJ, Martin EM, Robertson LC. Visual attention in HIV infection. Neuropsychology. 1994;8:424–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Grant I, Heaton RK, Atkinson JH, et al. HIV-1 associated neurocognitive disorder. The HNRC Group. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1992;15(Suppl 1 Pt A):364A–5A.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Marcotte TD, Heaton RK, Wolfson T, et al. The impact of HIV-related neuropsychological dysfunction on driving behaviour. The HNRC Group. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1999;5:579–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Becker JT, Sanchez J, Dew MA, et al. Neuro-psychological abnormalities among HIV-infected individuals in a community-based sample. Neuropsychology. 1997;11:592–601.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Ferrando S, van Gorp W, McElhiney M, et al. Highly active antiretroviral treatment in HIV infection: benefits for neuropsychological function. AIDS. 1998;12:F65–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Manly JJ, Patterson TL, Heaton RK, Semple SJ, White DA, Velin RA. The relationship between neuropsychological functioning and coping activity among HIV-positive men. AIDS Behav. 1997;1:81–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Stern Y, Liu X, Marder K, et al. Neuropsychological changes in a prospectively followed cohort of homosexual and bisexual men with and without HIV infection. Neurology. 1995;45:467–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Ernst T, Chang L, Jovicich J, et al. Abnormal brain activation on functional MRI in cognitively asymptomatic HIV patients. Neurology. 2002;59:1343–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Baldewicz TT, Leserman J, Silva SG, et al. Changes in neuropsychological functioning with progression of HIV-1 infection: results of an 8-year longitudinal investigation. AIDS Behav. 2004;8:345–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Tozzi V, Balestra P, Bellagamba R, et al. Persistence of neuropsychologic deficits despite long-term highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV-related neurocognitive impairment: prevalence and risk factors. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;45:174–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Evans DL, Bauer R, Leserman J, Mason KI, Petitto J. Neuropsychiatric manifestations of HIV-1 infection and AIDS. New York, NY: Raven Press; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Woods SP, Rippeth JD, Frol AB, et al. Interrater reliability of clinical ratings and neurocognitive diagnoses in HIV. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2004;26:759–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Cysique LA, Deutsch R, Atkinson JH, et al. Incident major depression does not affect neuropsychological functioning in HIV-infected men. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2007;13:1–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Delis DC, Peavy G, Heaton R, Butters N, et al. Do patients with HIV-associated minor cognitive/motor disorder exhibit a ‘subcortical’ memory profile? Evidence using the California Verbal Learning Test. Assessment. 1995;2:151–65.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Peavy G, Jacobs D, Salmon DP, et al. Verbal memory performance of patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: evidence of subcortical dysfunction. The HNRC Group. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1994;16:508–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Grant I, Atkinson JH, Hesselink JR, et al. Evidence for early central nervous system involvement in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and other human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections. Studies with neuropsychologic testing and magnetic resonance imaging. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107:828–36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Heaton RK, Grant I, Matthews CG. Comprehensive norms for an expanded Halstead-Retian battery. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Suarez S, Baril L, Stankoff B, et al. Outcome of patients with HIV-1-related cognitive impairment on highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2001;15:195–200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Cohen RA, Boland R, Paul R, et al. Neurocognitive performance enhanced by highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected women. AIDS. 2001;15:341–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Basso MR, Bornstein RA. Effects of immunosuppression and disease severity upon neuropsychological function in HIV infection. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2000;22:104–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Luo X, Carlson KA, Wojna V, et al. Macrophage proteomic fingerprinting predicts HIV-1-associated cognitive impairment. Neurology. 2003;60:1931–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Stern RA, Silva SG, Chaisson N, Evans DL. Influence of cognitive reserve on neuropsychological functioning in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection. Arch Neurol. 1996;53:148–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Blanchette N, Smith ML, King S, et al. Cognitive development in school-age children with vertically transmitted HIV infection. Dev Neuropsychol. 2002;21:223–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Woods SP, Carey CL, Troster AI, Grant I. Action (verb) generation in HIV-1 infection. Neuropsychologia. 2005;43:1144–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Iudicello JE, Woods SP, Parsons TD, et al. Verbal fluency in HIV infection: a meta-analytic review. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2007;13:183–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Navia BA, Price RW. The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome dementia complex as the presenting or sole manifestation of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arch Neurol. 1987;44:65–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Llorente AM, Miller EN, D‘Elia LF, et al. Slowed information processing in HIV-1 disease. The Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1998;20:60–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Miller EN, Selnes OA, McArthur JC, et al. Neuropsychological performance in HIV-1-infected homosexual men: the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). Neurology. 1990;40:197–203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Selnes OA, Galai N, McArthur JC, et al. HIV infection and cognition in intravenous drug users: long-term follow-up. Neurology. 1997;48:223–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Desi DC, Peavy G, Heaton R, Butters N, et al. Cognitive impairment in HIV infection: validation of a brief battery for neuropsychological assessment. Encephale. 1995;21:5.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Cole MA, Margolick JB, Cox C, et al. Longitudinally preserved psychomotor performance in long-term asymptomatic HIV-infected individuals. Neurology. 2007;69:2213–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Reger M, Welsh R, Razani J, et al. A meta-analysis of the neuropsychological sequelae of HIV infection. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2002;8:410–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. von Giesen HJ, Heintges T, Abbasi-Boroudjeni N, et al. Psychomotor slowing in hepatitis C and HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;35:131–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Hinkin CH, Castellon SA, Hardy DJ, et al. Computerized and traditional Stroop task dysfunction in HIV-1 infection. Neuropsychology. 1999;13:306–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Tozzi V, Balestra P, Galgani S, et al. Positive and sustained effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy on HIV-1-associated neurocognitive impairment. AIDS. 1999;13:1889–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Martin EM, Novak RM, Fendrich M, et al. Stroop performance in drug users classified by HIV and hepatitis C virus serostatus. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2004a;10:298–300.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Basso MR, Bornstein RA. Effects of past noninjection drug abuse upon executive function and working memory in HIV infection. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2003;25:893–903.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Carter SL, Rourke SB, Murji S, et al. Cognitive complaints, depression, medical symptoms, and their association with neuropsychological functioning in HIV infection: a structural equation model analysis. Neuropsychology. 2003;17:410–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Hardy DJ, Hinkin CH, Levine AJ, et al. Risky decision making assessed with the gambling task in adults with HIV. Neuropsychology. 2006;20:355–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Martin EM, Pitrak DL, Weddington W, et al. Cognitive impulsivity and HIV serostatus in substance dependent males. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2004b;10:931–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Hardy J. The genetic causes of neurodegenerative diseases. J Alzheimers Dis. 2001;3:109–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Martin A. Clinically significant cognitive dysfunction in medically asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus-infected (HIV+) individuals? Psychosom Med. 1994;56:18–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Butters N, Grant I, Haxby J, et al. Assessment of AIDS-related cognitive changes: recommendations of the NIMH Workshop on Neuropsychological Assessment Approaches. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1990;12:963–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Cherner M, Masliah E, Ellis RJ, et al. Neurocognitive dysfunction predicts postmortem findings of HIV encephalitis. Neurology. 2002;59:1563–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. 2nd ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Cherner M. Comorbid risk factor of HIV international neuropsychological society. Waikoloa, HI, 2008

    Google Scholar 

  69. Dolan S, Montagno A, Wilkie S, et al. Neurocognitive function in HIV-infected patients with low weight and weight loss. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;34:155–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Sacktor NC, Lyles RH, Skolasky RL, et al. Combination antiretroviral therapy improves psychomotor speed performance in HIV-seropositive homosexual men. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). Neurology. 1999:52:1640–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Hinkin CH, Hardy DJ, Mason KI, et al. Medication adherence in HIV-infected adults: effect of patient age, cognitive status, and substance abuse. AIDS. 2004;18(Suppl 1):S19–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Marcotte DE, Wilcox-Gok V. Estimating the employment and earnings costs of mental illness: recent developments in the United States. Soc Sci Med. 2001;53:21–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Marcotte TD, Lazzaretto D, Scott JC, et al. Visual attention deficits are associated with driving accidents in cognitively-impaired HIV-infected individuals. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2006;28:13–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Osowiecki DM, Cohen RA, Morrow KM, et al. Neurocognitive and psychological contributions to quality of life in HIV-1-infected women. AIDS. 2000;14:1327–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Gonzalez R, Cherner M. Co-factors in HIV neurobehavioural disturbances: substance abuse, hepatitis C and aging. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2008;20:49–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Tyor WR, Middaugh LD. Do alcohol and cocaine abuse alter the course of HIV-associated dementia complex? J Leukoc Biol. 1999;65:475–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. World Health Organization. The world health report 2006: working together for health. World Health Report. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2006

    Google Scholar 

  78. Chang L, Ernst T, Speck O, Grob CS. Additive effects of HIV and chronic methamphetamine use on brain metabolite abnormalities. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:361–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Pfefferbaum A, Rosenbloom M, Sullivan EV. Alcoholism AIDS magnetic resonance imaging approaches for detecting interactive neuropathology. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2002;26:1031–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. <aug>Pfefferbaum A, Rosenbloom MJ, Rohlfing T, et al. Contribution of alcoholism to brain dysmorphology in HIV infection: effects on the ventricles and corpus callosum. Neuroimage. 2006;33:239–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Bornstein RA, Fama R, Rosenberger P, et al. Drug and alcohol use and neuropsychological performance in asymptomatic HIV infection. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1993;5:254–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. McArthur JC, Haughey N, Gartner S, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated dementia: an evolving disease. J Neurovirol. 2003;9:205–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Paul RH, Grieve SM, Niaura R, et al. Chronic cigarette smoking and the microstructural integrity of white matter in healthy adults: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Nicotine Tob Res. 2008;10:137–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Quang-Cantagrel ND, Wallace MS, Ashar N, Mathews C. Long-term methadone treatment: effect on CD4+ lymphocyte counts and HIV-1 plasma RNA level in patients with HIV infection. Eur J Pain. 2001;5:415–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Wang X, Tan N, Douglas SD, et al. Morphine inhibits CD8+ T cell-mediated, noncytolytic, anti-HIV activity in latently infected immune cells. J Leukoc Biol. 2005;78: 772–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Donahoe RM, Vlahov D. Opiates as potential cofactors in progression of HIV-1 infections to AIDS. J Neuroimmunol. 1998;83:77–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Vallejo R, de Leon-Casasola O, Benyamin R. Opioid therapy and immunosuppression: a review. Am J Ther. 2004;11:354–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Fiala M, Eshleman AJ, Cashman J, et al. Cocaine increases human immunodeficiency virus type 1 neuroinvasion through remodeling brain microvascular endothelial cells. J Neurovirol. 2005;11:281–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Zhang L, Looney D, Taub D, et al. Cocaine opens the blood-brain barrier to HIV-1 invasion. J Neurovirol. 1998;4:619–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. McMurtray A, Nakamoto B, Shikuma C, Valcour V. Cortical atrophy and white matter hyperintensities in HIV: the Hawaii Aging with HIV Cohort Study. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2008;17:212–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Valcour V, Haman A, Cornes S, et al. A case of enteroviral meningoencephalitis presenting as rapidly progressive dementia. Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2008;4:399–403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Nosheny RL, Bachis A, Acquas E, Mocchetti I. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 glycoprotein gp120 reduces the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in vivo: potential implication for neuronal cell death. Eur J Neurosci. 2004;20:2857–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Corominas M, Roncero C, Ribases M, et al. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its intracellular signaling pathways in cocaine addiction. Neuropsychobiology. 2007;55:2–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Jernigan TL, Gamst AC, Archibald SL, et al. Effects of methamphetamine dependence and HIV infection on cerebral morphology. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:1461–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Castelo JM, Courtney MG, Melrose RJ, Stern CE. Putamen hypertrophy in nondemented patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection and cognitive compromise. Arch Neurol. 2007;64:1275–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Pfefferbaum A, Rosenbloom MJ, Adalsteinsson E, Sullivan EV. Diffusion tensor imaging with quantitative fibre tracking in HIV infection and alcoholism comorbidity: synergistic white matter damage. Brain. 2007;130:48–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Taylor MJ, Schweinsburg BC, Alhassoon OM, et al. Effects of human immunodeficiency virus and methamphetamine on cerebral metabolites measured with magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Neurovirol. 2007;13:150–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Forton DM, Allsop JM, Cox IJ, et al. A review of cognitive impairment and cerebral metabolite abnormalities in patients with hepatitis C infection. AIDS. 2005;19(Suppl 3): S53–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Clifford DB, Yang Y, Evans S. Neurologic consequences of hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency virus coinfection. J Neurovirol. 2005;11(Suppl 3):67–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Perry W, Carlson MD, Barakat F, et al. Neuropsychological test performance in patients co-infected with hepatitis C virus and HIV. AIDS. 2005;19(Suppl 3):S79–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Richardson JL, Nowicki M, Danley K, et al. Neuropsychological functioning in a cohort of HIV – and hepatitis C virus-infected women. AIDS. 2005;19:1659–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Paul R, Taylor L, Tate D, et al. Cognitive dysfunction in patients HIV-HCV. Co-infection is not mediated by severity of drug use. Proceedings of the 13th conference on retroviruses and opportunistic infections. Denver, CO, 2006

    Google Scholar 

  103. Morgello S, Estanislao L, Ryan E, et al. Effects of hepatic function and hepatitis C virus on the nervous system assessment of advanced-stage HIV-infected individuals. AIDS. 2005;19(Suppl 3):S116–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Stoff DM, Khalsa JH, Monjan A, Portegies P. Introduction: HIV/AIDS and Aging. AIDS. 2004;18(Suppl 1):S1–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Valcour V, Paul R. HIV infection and dementia in older adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:1449–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Goodkin K, Wilkie FL, Concha M, et al. Aging and neuro-AIDS conditions and the changing spectrum of HIV-1-associated morbidity and mortality. J Clin Epidemiol. 2001;54(Suppl 1):S35–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Murasko DM, Weiner P, Kaye D. Decline in mitogen induced proliferation of lymphocytes with increasing age. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1987;70:440–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Clark CR, Paul RH, Williams LM, et al. Standardized assessment of cognitive functioning during development and aging using an automated touchscreen battery. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2006;21:449–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Paul RH, Haque O, Gunstad J, et al. Subcortical hyperintensities impact cognitive function among a select subset of healthy elderly. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2005;20:697–704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Esiri MM, Biddolph SC, Morris CS. Prevalence of Alzheimer plaques in AIDS. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998;65:29–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Green DA, Masliah E, Vinters HV, et al. Brain deposition of beta-amyloid is a common pathologic feature in HIV positive patients. AIDS. 2005;19:407–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Van Den Heuvel C, Thornton E, Vink R. Traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer’s disease: a review. Prog Brain Res. 2007;161:303–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Chiesi A, Vella S, Dally LG, et al. Epidemiology of AIDS dementia complex in Europe. AIDS in Europe Study Group. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1996;11:39–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Janssen RS. Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus infection and the neurologic complications of the infection. Semin Neurol. 1992;12:10–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. McArthur JC, Hoover DR, Bacellar H, et al. Dementia in AIDS patients: incidence and risk factors. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Neurology. 1993;43:2245–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Kissel EC, Pukay-Martin ND, Bornstein RA. The relationship between age and cognitive function in HIV-infected men. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2005;17:180–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Batki SL. Drug abuse, psychiatric disorders, and AIDS. Dual and triple diagnosis. West J Med. 1990;152:547–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Burnam MA, Bing EG, Morton SC, et al. Use of mental health and substance abuse treatment services among adults with HIV in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:729–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, et al. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:617–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Rabkin JG, Ferrando SJ, Jacobsberg LB, Fishman B. Prevalence of axis I disorders in an AIDS cohort: a cross-sectional, controlled study. Compr Psychiatry. 1997;38:146–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Acuff C, Archambeault J, Greenberg B. Mental health care for people living with or affected by HIV/AIDS: a practical guide. Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  123. Ferrando SJ, Freyberg Z. Treatment of depression in HIV positive individuals: a critical review. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2008;20:61–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Ickovics J, Chesney M. Issues regarding antiretroviral treatment for patients with HIV-1 infection. JAMA. 1997;278:1233–4; author reply 1235.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Cruess DG, Evans DL, Repetto MJ, et al. Prevalence, diagnosis, and pharmacological treatment of mood disorders in HIV disease. Biol Psychiatry. 2003;54:307–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Avants SK, Margolin A, Warburton LA, et al. Predictors of nonadherence to HIV-related medication regimens during methadone stabilization. Am J Addict. 2001;10:69–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Reynolds NR, Testa MA, Marc LG, et al. Factors influencing medication adherence beliefs and self-efficacy in persons naive to antiretroviral therapy: a multicenter, cross-sectional study. AIDS Behav. 2004;8:141–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Tucker JS, Burnam MA, Sherbourne CD, et al. Substance use and mental health correlates of nonadherence to antiretroviral medications in a sample of patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Med. 2003;114:573–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Castellon SA, Hardy DJ, Hinkin CH, et al. Components of depression in HIV-1 infection: their differential relationship to neurocognitive performance. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2006;28:420–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Neuenburg JK, Brodt HR, Herndier BG, et al. HIV-related neuropathology, 1985 to 1999: rising prevalence of HIV encephalopathy in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;31:171–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Arendt G, de Nocker D, von Giesen HJ, Nolting T. Neuropsychiatric side effects of efavirenz therapy. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2007;6:147–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Holzemer WL. HIV and AIDS: the symptom experience. What cell counts and viral loads won’t tell you. Am J Nurs. 2002;102:48–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Holzemer WL, Hudson A, Kirksey KM, et al. The revised Sign and Symptom Check-List for HIV (SSC-HIVrev). J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2001;12:60–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Huang GDaMF. ADA litigation and Musculoskeletal-related impairments: implications for work re-entry. J Occup Rehabil. 1998;8:91–102

    Google Scholar 

  135. Heaton RK, Marcotte TD, Mindt MR, et al. The impact of HIV-associated neuropsychological impairment on everyday functioning. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2004;10:317–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Fish GaDL R. The potential role of OT in acute care with clients with HIV/AIDS. Occup Thera Int. 1998;5:1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  137. Johnson MO, Stallworth T, Neilands TB. The drugs or the disease? Causal attributions of symptoms held by HIV-positive adults on HAART. AIDS Behav. 2003;7:109–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Gupta JD, Satishchandra P, Gopukumar K, et al. Neuropsychological deficits in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 clade C-seropositive adults from South India. J Neurovirol. 2007;13:195–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Yepthomi T, Paul R, Vallabhaneni S, et al. Neurocognitive consequences of HIV in southern India: a preliminary study of clade C virus. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2006;12:424–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Harvard Medical School, Brigham and Women Hospital, Boston University Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA

    David F. Tate

  2. Department of Psychology and Behavioral Neurosciences, University of Missouri, St. Louis, MO, 63121, USA

    Robert H. Paul

  3. Center for Neurological Imaging, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA

    Kinga Kertesz & Troy Russell

  4. Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA

    Jared Conley

Authors
  1. David F. Tate
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Robert H. Paul
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kinga Kertesz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jared Conley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Troy Russell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David F. Tate .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Oncology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Market Street 3535, Philadelphia, 19104, USA

    Carol L. Armstrong

  2. Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, 15213, USA

    Lisa Morrow

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Tate, D.F., Paul, R.H., Kertesz, K., Conley, J., Russell, T. (2010). HIV–AIDS: The Neurologic and Cognitive Consequences of HIV-1 Infection. In: Armstrong, C., Morrow, L. (eds) Handbook of Medical Neuropsychology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1364-7_20

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation