Abstract
We describe primary care practice and how the care of people with drug and alcohol use fits into it. The detection, evaluation, and short or long-term management of chronic behavioral problems are core functions of primary care that may be profoundly enhanced by the therapeutic relationship of primary care provider with patient. We describe screening for risky, unhealthy or problematic use of substances. The evaluation of patients who have positive screens dictates the next steps for provider and patient: this may include a brief intervention, the prescription of medications or referral for other specialty care. The management of concomitant or secondary psychiatric and medical illness is discussed. Finally, we provide guidance on the chronic management of routine medical conditions for patients in recovery.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Aertgeerts B, Buntinx F, Kester A (2004) The value of CAGE in screening for alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence in general clinical populations. J Clin Epidem 57:30–39
Agency for Healthcare Quality and Research (2007) Primary care doctors account for nearly half of physician visits but leSs than one-third of expenses. http://www.ahrq.gov/news/nn/nn042507.htm. Accessed 14 July 2008
Akbik H, Butler SF, Budman SH, Fernandez K et al (2006) Validation and clinical application of the screener and opioid assessment for patients with pain (SOAPP). J Pain Symptom Manage 32:287–293
American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edn revision. American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC
Anton RF (2008) Naltrexone for the management of alcohol dependence. NEJM 359:715–721
Anton RF, Moak DH, Latham P et al (2005) Naltrexone combined with either cognitive behavioral or motivational enhancement therapy for alcohol dependence. J Clin Psychopharmacol 25:349–357
Anton RF, O’Malley S, Ciraulo DA et al (2006) Combined pharmacotherapies and behavioral interventions for alcohol dependence. The COMBINE study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 295(17):2003–3017
Arnold RM, Han PKJ, Seltzer D (2006) Opioid contracts in chronic nonmalignant pain management: objective and uncertainties. Am J Med 119:292–296
ASAM (American Society of Addiction Medicine) (2001) Patient placement criteria for the treatment of substance-related disorders (PPC-2R), 2nd edn. American Society of Addiction Medicine, Chevy Chase, MD
Aubin H-J, Bobak A, Britton JR et al (2008) Varenicline versus transdermal nicotine patch for smoking cessation: results from a randomized open-label trial. Thorax 63:717–724
Balldin J, Berglund M, Borg S et al (2003) A 6 month controlled naltrexone study: combine effect with cognitive behavioral therapy in outpatient treatment of alcohol dependence. Alc Clin Exp Res 27:1142–1149
Banta-Green C, Jackson TR, Hanrahan N et al (2004) Recent drug abuse trends in the Seattle-King County area. Proc Community Epid Working Group 2:1–23
Beich A, Thorsen T, Rollnick S (2003) Screening in brief interventions trials targeting excessive drinkers in general practice: systemic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 327:536
Bernstein J, Bernstein E, Tassiopoulos K et al (2005) Brief motivational intervention at a clinic visit reduces cocaine and heroin use. Drug Alcohol Depend 77(1):49–59
Bertholet N, Daeppen J-B, Wietlisbach V (2005) Reduction of alcohol consumption by brief alcohol intervention in primary care Arch Intern Med 165:986–995
Bien TH, Miller WR, Tonigan JS (1993) Brief interventions for alcohol problems: a review. Addiction 88:315–336
Bouza C, Angeles M, Ana M et al (2004) The efficacy and safety of naltrexone and acamprosate in the treatment of alcohol dependence: a systematic review. Addiction 99:811–828
Bradley KA, DeBenedetti AF, Volk RJ et al (2007) AUDIT-C as a brief screen for alcohol misuse in primary care. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 31:1209–1217
Brady KT, Tolliver BK, Berduin ML (2007) Alcohol use and anxiety: diagnostic and management issues. Am J Psychiatry164:217–221
Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA et al (2001) Two-item conjoint screen for alcohol and other drug problems. J Am Board Fam Pract 14:95–106
Brown RL, Rounds LA (1995) Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wisconsin Med J 94:135–140
Buchsbaum DG, Buchanan RG, Centor RM et al (1991) Screening for alcohol abuse using CAGE scores and likelihood ratios. Annals Intern Med 115(10):774–777.
California Academy of Family Physicians (2006) Urine drug testing in clinical practice. http://www.familydocs.org/monographs.php. Accessed 28 Aug 2008
Canagasaby A, Vinson DC (2005) Screening for hazardous or harmful drinking using one or two quantity-frequency questions. Alcohol Alcohol 40:208–213
Chan KK, Neighbors C, Gilson M et al (2007) Epidemiologic trends in drinking by age and gender: providing normative feedback to adults. Addictive Behaviors 32:967–976.
Cuijpers P, Riper H, Lemmers L (2004) The effects on mortality of brief intervention for problem drinking: a metaanalysis. Addiction 99:829–845
De Micheli, Fisberg M, Formigoni ML (2004) Study on the effectiveness of brief intervention for alcohol and other drug use directed to adolescents in a primary health care unit. Rev Assoc Med Bras 50:305–313
DeSousa A, Desousa A (2005) An open randomized study comparing disulfiram and acamprosate in the treatment of alcohol dependence Alcohol Alcohol 40(6):545–548
Fiellin, DA, Reid C, O’Connor PG (2000) Outpatient management of patients with alcohol problems. Ann Intern Med 133:815–827
Fishman SM, Kreis PG (2002) The opioid contract. Clin J Pain 18(4):S70–S75
Fleming MF, Barry KL, Manwell LB et al (1997) Brief physician advice for problem alcohol drinkers: a randomized controlled trial in community-based primary care practices. JAMA 277:1039–1045
Fleming MF, Mundt MP, French MT et al (2000) Benefit-cost analysis of brief physician advice with problem drinkers in primary care settings. Medical Care 38:7–18
Fleming MF, Mundt MP, French MT et al (2002) Brief physician advice for problem drinkers: long-term efficacy and benefit-cost analysis. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 26:36–43
Friedmann PD, McCollough D Chin MH et al (2000) Screening and intervention for alcohol problems. J Gen Intern Med 15:84–91
Friedmann, PD, Saitz R, Samet JH (1998) Management of adults recovering from alcohol or other drug problems: relapse prevention in primary care. JAMA 279:1227–1231
Garbutt JC, Kranzler HR, O’Malley SS et al (2005) Efficacy and tolerability of injectable naltrexone for alcohol dependence: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 293:1617–1625
Gawin FH, Ellinwood EH (1988) Cocaine and other stimulants. Actions, abuse, and treatment. N Engl J Med 318:1173–1182
Gonzales D, Rennard SI, Nides M et al (2006)Varenicline, an alph4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs sustained-release bupropion or placebo for smoking cessation. JAMA 296:47–55
Hayashida M (1998) An overview of outpatient and inpatient detoxification. Alcohol Health Res World 22:44–46
Humphreys K. (1999) Professional interventions that facilitate 12 step self-help group involvement. Alcohol Res Health 23:93–98
Institute of Medicine (1994) Defining primary care: an interim report. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9153&page=15. Accessed 14 July 2008
Institute of Medicine (2006) Improving the quality of health care for mental and substance-use conditions. National Academies, Washington, DC
Johnson BA, Rosenthal N, Capece JA et al (2007) Topiramate for treating alcohol dependence: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 298:1641–1651
Jorenby DE, Hayes JT, Rigotti NA et al (2006) Efficacy of varenicline, an alph4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs placebo or sustained-release bupropion for smoking cessation. JAMA 296:56–63
Katz N, Fanciullo GJ (2002) Role of urine toxicology testing in the management of chronic opioid therapy. Clin J Pain 18(4):S76–S82
Kiefer F, Holger J, Tarnaske T et al (2003) Comparing and combining naltrexone and acamprosate in relapse prevention of alcoholism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 60:92–99
Kosten TR, O’Connor PG (2003) Management of drug and alcohol withdrawal. New Engl J Med 348:1786–1795
Kranzler HR, Burleson JA, Del Boca FK et al. (1994) Buspirone treatment of anxious alcoholics: a placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51:720–731
Kypri K, Saunders JB, Williams SM et al (2004) Web-based screening and brief intervention for hazardous drinking: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Addiction 99:1410–1417
Mann K, Lehert P, Morgan MY (2004) The efficacy of acamprosate in the maintenance of abstinence in alcohol-dependent individuals: results of a meta-analysis. Alc Clin Exp Res 28:51–63
Mayo-Smith MF et al. (1997) Pharmacological management of alcohol withdrawal. A meta-analysis and evidence based practice guideline. American Society of Addiction Medicine Working Group on Pharmacologic Management of Alcohol Withdrawal. JAMA 278:144–151
McGlynn EA, Asch SM, Adams J et al (2003) The quality of health care delivered to adults in the United States. New Engl J Med 348:2635–2645
McKee SA, Falba T, O’Malley SS et al (2007) Smoking status as a clinical indicator for alcohol misuse in US adults. Arch Intern Med 167:716–721
Miller WR, Rollnick S (1991) Motivational interviewing: preparing people to change addictive behavior, 2nd edn. Guilford, New York
National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Your guide to healthy sleep. DHHS Publication No. 06-5271 http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/sleep/healthy_sleep.pdf. Accessed 14 June 2008
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (2007) Helping patients who drink too much: a clinician’s guide. 2005 edn. NIH Publication No. 07-3769, Bethesda, MD
Nowinski J, Baker S, Carroll K. (1995) Project MATCH twelve step facilitation therapy manual. A clinical research guide for therapists treating individuals with alcohol abuse and dependence. USDHHS, Rockville
Nunes EV, Levin FR (2004) Treatment of depression in patients with alcohol or other drug dependence JAMA 291:1887–1896
O’Connor PG, Schottenfeld RS (1998) Patients with alcohol problems. New Eng J Med 338:592–602
O’Malley SS, Rounsaville BJ, Farren C et al (2003) Initial and maintenance naltrexone treatment for alcohol dependence using primary care versus specialty care. A nested sequence of 3 randomized trials. Arch Intern Med 163:1695–1704
Oregon Health Sciences University (OHSU) (2008) Chronic pain management http://www.ohsu.edu/ahec/pain/form.html. Accessed 28 Aug 2008
Overman GP, Teter CJ, Guthrie SK (2003)Acamprosate for the adjunctive treatment of alcohol dependence. Ann Pharmacother 37:1090–1099
Paille FM, Guelfi JD, Perkins AC et al (1995) Double-blind randomized multicentre trial of acamprosate in maintaining abstinence from alcohol. Alcohol Alcohol 30:239–247
Pettinati HM, O’Brien CP, Rabinowitz AR et al (2006) The status of naltrexone in the treatment of alcohol dependence; specific effects on heavy drinking. J Clin Pharmacol 26:610–625
Pettinati HM, Weiss RD, Dundon W et al (2005) A structured approach to medical management: a psychosocial intervention to support pharmacotherapy in the treatment of alcohol dependence. J Stud Alcohol Suppl(15):179–187
Reeves RR, Carter OS, Pinkofsky HB et al (1999) Carisoprodol (soma): abuse potential and physician unawareness. J Addict Dis 18:51–56
Reid MC, Engles-Horton LL, Weber MB et al (2002) Use of opioid medications for chronic noncancer pain syndromes in primary care. J Gen Intern Med 17(3):173–179
Reinert DF, Allen JP (2002) The alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT): a review of recent research. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 26(2):272–279
Saitz R (2005) Unhealthy alcohol use. New Engl J Med 352:596–607
Samet JH, Rollnick S, Barnes H (1996) Beyond CAGE: a brief clinical approach after detection of substance abuse. Arch Intern Med 156:2287–2289
Sass H, Soyka M Mann K et al (1996) Relapse prevention by acamprosate: results from a placebo-controlled study on alcohol dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53:673–680
Sellars EM, Naranjo CA, Harrison M, et al (1983) Diazepam loading: simplified treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Clin Pharmacol Ther 34:822–826
Sinclair JD (2001) Evidence about the use of naltrexone and for different ways of using it in the treatment of alcoholism. Alcohol Alcohol 36(1):2–10
Skinner HA (1982) The drug abuse screening test. Addict Behav 7(4):363–371
Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, et al (2009) Primary care validation of a single-question alcohol screening test. J Gen Intern Med 24:783–788. Erratum: (2010) J Gen Intern Med 25(4):375
Solberg LI, Maciosek MV, Edwards NM (2008) Primary care intervention to reduce alcohol misuse: ranking its health impact and cost effectiveness. Am J Prev Med 34(2):143–152
Standridge JB, Zylstra RG, Adams SM (2004) Alcohol consumption: an overview of benefits and risks. So J Med 97: 664–672
Starosta AN, Leeman RF, Volpicelli JR (2006) The BRENDA model: integrating psychosocial treatment and pharmacotherapy for the treatment of alcohol use disorders. J Psychiatric Pract 12:80–89
Streeton C, Whelan G (2001) Naltrexone, a relapse prevention maintenance treatment of alcohol dependence: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Alcohol Alcohol 36:544–552
Sullivan E, Fleming M (1997) A guide to substance abuse services for primary care clinicians. Treatment improvement protocol (TIP) 24. Department Health and Human Services Pub No. SMA 97–3139
Sullivan JT, Sykora K, Schneiderman J et al (1989) Assessment of alcohol withdrawal: the revised clinical institute withdrawal instrument for alcohol scale (CIWA-Ar). Br J Addiction 84:1353–1357
Sullivan LE, Fiellin DA (2008) Narrative review: buprenorphine for opioid-dependent patients in office practice. Ann Intern Med 148:662–670
US Department of Health and Human Services (2004) The confidentiality of alcohol and drug abuse patient records regulation and the HIPAA privacy rule: implications for alcohol and substance abuse programs. http://www.hipaa.samhsa.gov/download2/SAMHSA’sPart2-HIPAAComparisonClearedWordVersion.doc. Accessed 29 Aug 2008
US Department of Health and Human Services (2004) Clinical guidelines for the use of buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid addiction. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) 40. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 04-3939
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2004) Screening and behavioral counseling interventions in primary care to reduce alcohol misuse: recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 140:554–556, 557–568
Unutzer J, Katon W, Callahan CM, et al (2002) Collaborative care management of late-life depression in the primary care setting: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 288:2836–2845
Vinson DC, Kruse RL, Seale JP (2007) Simplifying alcohol assessment: two questions to identify alcohol use disorders. Alc Clin Exp Res 31:1392–1398
World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) The effectiveness of brief interventions for illicit drugs linked to alcohol, smoking and substance involvement screening test (ASSIST) in primary health care settings: a technical report of phase III findings of the WHO ASSIST randomized controlled trial. http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/activities/assist_technicalreport_phase3_final.pdf. Accessed 28 Aug 2008
Wilson JF (2007) Strategies to reduce opiate abuse. Ann Intern Med 146:887–890
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bierer, M.F., Saitz, R. (2010). Unhealthy Alcohol and Drug Use in Primary Care. In: Johnson, B. (eds) Addiction Medicine. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0338-9_42
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0338-9_42
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-0337-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-0338-9
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)