Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Ketamine and Phencyclidine

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Addiction Medicine

  • 5275 Accesses

Abstract

Ketamine and phencyclidine are chemically related to each other and have psychotropic effects similar to other prototypical hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamide. Both drugs have been abused since the 1970s and have become popular again in the 2000s, especially among young adults who are active in the club scene. Appealing effects described by users include visual hallucinations and changes in body image. A definitive physiological withdrawal syndrome does not appear to develop after stopping use of ketamine or phencyclidine. Repeated use may result in long-term psychiatric consequences, such as anxiety, depression, or psychosis. The analgesic and dissociative effects may result in injury or even death in users, and emergency department visits by users of these drugs have increased significantly in recent years. Treatment of abuse and dependence is often difficult due to the young age of most users and concurrent polysubstance abuse. This chapter discusses management of the physiological and psychological consequences of use, as well as treatment of addiction.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 299.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 379.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Abraham HD, Aldridge AM, Gogia P (1996) The psychopharmacology of hallucinogens. Neuro-psychopharmacology 14:285–298

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edn, text revision. American Psychiatric Publishing, Arlington, VA

    Google Scholar 

  3. Anis NA, Berry SC, Burton, N, et al (1983) The dissociative anesthetics ketamine and phencyclidine selectively reduce excitation of central mammalian neurons by N-methyl-D-aspartate. Br J Pharmacol 79:565–575

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Bowyer JF, Spuhler KP, Weiner N (1984) Effects of phencyclidine, amphetamine and related compounds on dopamine release from and uptake into striatal synaptosomes. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 229:671–680

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Bryant WK, Ompad DC, Ahern J, et al (2006) Period and birth-cohort effects on age of first phencyclidine (PCP) use among drug users in New York City, 1960–2000. Ann Epidemiol 16:266–272

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Carroll ME (1985) PCP, the dangerous angel. In: Snyder SH (ed) Encyclopedia of psychoactive drugs. Chelsea House, New York

    Google Scholar 

  7. Chen G, Ensor CR, Russell D et al (1959) The pharmacology of 1-(1-phenylcyclohexyl) piperidine-HCl. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 127:241–250

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Clatts MC, Goldsamt L, Huso Y (2005) Club drug use among young men who have sex with men in NYC: a preliminary epidemiological profile. Subst Use Misuse 40:1317–1330

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Corssen G, Domino EF (1966) Dissociative anesthesia: further pharmacologic studies and first clinical experience with the phencyclidine derivative CI-581. Anesth Analg Curr Res 45:191–199

    Google Scholar 

  10. Curran HV, Monaghan L (2001) In and out of the K-hole: a comparison of the acute and residual effects of ketamine in frequent and infrequent ketamine users. Addiction 96:749–760

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. DAWN (2003) Emergency department trends from the drug abuse warning network DAWN: final estimates 1995–2002. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD

    Google Scholar 

  12. Deakin JFW, Lees J, McKie S et al (2008) Glutamate and the neural basis of the subjective effects of ketamine: a pharmaco-magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65:154–164

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Dillon P, Copeland J, Jansen K (2003) Patterns of use and harm associated with non-medical ketamine use. Drug Alcohol Depend 69:23–28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Feldman HW (1980) Angel dust in four American cities: an ethnographic study of PCP users. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD

    Google Scholar 

  15. Giannini AJ, Loiselle RH, Giannini MC et al (1984) Phencyclidine and the dissociatives. Psychiatr Med 3:197–217

    Google Scholar 

  16. Gorelick DA, Wilkins JN, Wong C (1986) Diagnosis and treatment of chronic phencyclidine (PCP) abuse. NIDA Res Monogr 64:218–228

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Gorelick DA, Wilkins JN, Wong C (1989) Outpatient treatment of PCP abusers. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 15:367–375

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Grover D, Yeragani VK, Keshanan MS (1986) Improvement of phencyclidine-associated psychosis with ECT. J Clin Psychiatry 47:477–478

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Harari MD, Netzer D (1994) Genital examination under ketamine sedation in cases of suspected sexual abuse. Arch Dis Child 70:197–199

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Hurlbut KM (1991) Drug-induced psychoses. Emerg Med Clin North Am 9:31–52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Jansen KLR (1990) Ketamine—can chronic use impair memory? Int J Addictions 25:133–139

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Joe Laidler K (2005) The rise of club drugs in a heroin society: the case of Hong Kong. Subst Use Misuse 40:1257–1278

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Johnston LD, O’Malley PM, Bachman JG et al (2005) Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2004, secondary school students, vol. 1. National Institute on Drug Abuse, Bethesda, MD

    Google Scholar 

  24. Kamaya H, Krishna PR (1987) Ketamine addiction. Anaesthesiology 67:861–862

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Lankenau SE, Clatts M (2004) Drug injection practices among high-risk youths: the first shot of ketamine. J Urban Health 81:232–248

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Lankenau SE, Sanders B, Bloom JJ et al (2007) First injection of ketamine among young injection drug users (IDUs) in three U.S. cities. Drug Alcohol Depend 87:183–193

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Marrs-Simon PA, Weiler M, Santangelo MA et al (1988) Analysis of sexual disparity of violent behavior in PCP intoxication. Vet Hum Toxicol 30:53–55

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. McCambridge J, Winstock A, Hunt N et al (2007) 5-year trends in use of hallucinogens and other adjunct drugs among UK dance drug users. Eur Addict Res 13:57–64

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. McCardle L, Fishbein DH (1989) The self-reported effects of PCP on human aggression. Addict Behav 14:465–472

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Meng Y, Lichtman AH, Bridgen T et al (1996) Pharmacological potency and biodisposition of phencyclidine via inhalation exposure in mice. Drug Alcohol Depend 43:13–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Meutzelfeldt L, Kamboj SK, Rees H et al (2008) Journey through the K-hole: phenomenological aspects of ketamine use. Drug Alcohol Depend 95:219–229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Moore NN, Bostwick JM (1999) Ketamine dependence in anesthesia providers. Psychosomatics 40:356–359

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Morgan CJA, Monaghan L, Curran HV (2004) Beyond the K-hole: a 3-year longitudinal investigation of the cognitive and subjective effects of ketamine in recreational users who have substantially reduced their use of the drug. Addiction 99:1450–1461

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Olney JW, Labruyere J, Wang G et al (1991) NMDA antagonist neurotoxicity: mechanism and prevention. Science 254:1515–1518

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Peters RJ, Kelder SH, Meshack A et al (2005) Beliefs and social norms about cigarettes or marijuana sticks laced with embalming fluid and phencyclidine (PCP): why youth use “fry.” Subst Use Misuse 40:563–571

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Petersen RC, Stillman RC (1978) Phencyclidine (PCP) abuse: an appraisal. NIDA Res Monogr 21:1–17

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Pomarol-Clotet E, Honey GD, Murray GK et al (2006) Psychological effects of ketamine in healthy volunteers: phenomenological study. Br J Psychiatry 189:173–179

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Rappolt RT Sr, Gay GR, Farris RD (1980) Phencyclidine (PCP) intoxication: diagnosis in stages and algorithms of treatment. Clin Toxicol 16:509–529

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Reich DL, Silvay G (1989) Ketamine: an update on the first twenty-five years of clinical experience. Can J Anaesth 36:186–197

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Rosen AM, Mukherjee S, Shinbach K (1984) The efficacy of ECT in phencyclidine-induced psychosis. J Clin Psychiatry 45:220–222

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Schnoll SH: Street PCP scene (1980) Issues on synthesis and contamination. J Psychedelic Drugs 12:229–233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Shahani R, Streutker C, Dickson B et al (2007) Ketamine-associated ulcerative cystitis: a new clinical entity. Urology 69:810–812

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Smith RC, Melzer HY, Arora RC et al (1977) Effect of phencyclidine on 3H-catecholamine and 3H-serotonin uptake in synaptosomal preparations from rat brain. Biochem Pharmacol 26:1435–1439

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Strassman RJ (1984) Adverse reactions to psychedelic drugs: a review of the literature. J Nerv Ment Dis 172:577–595

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Weaver MF, Schnoll SH (2007) Phencyclidine and ketamine. In: Gabbard GO (ed) Treatments of psychiatric disorders, 4th edn. American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  46. Weaver MF, Schnoll SH (2008) Hallucinogens and club drugs. In: Galanter M, Kleber HD (eds) Textbook of substance abuse treatment, 4th edn. American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  47. Weiner AL, Vieira L, McKay CA et al (2000) Ketamine abusers presenting to the emergency department: a case series. J Emerg Med 18:447–451

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Weinstein H, Maayuni S, Glick S et al (1981) Integrated studies on the biochemical, behavioral and molecular pharmacology of phencyclidine: a progress report. In: Domino EF (ed) Phencyclidine (PCP): historical and current perspectives. NPP Books, Ann Arbor, MI

    Google Scholar 

  49. Wong LK, Biemann K (1976) Metabolites of phencyclidine. Clin Toxicol 9:583–591

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Wu L-T, Schlenger WE, Galvin DM (2006) Concurrent use of methamphetamine, MDMA, LSD, ketamine, GHB, and flunitrazepam among American youths. Drug Alcohol Depend 84:102–113

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departments of Internal Medicine and Psychiatry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, 23298-0109, USA

    Michael F. Weaver

  2. Departments of Internal Medicine and Psychiatry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA

    Sidney H. Schnoll

  3. Pinney Associates, Westport, CT, 06880, USA

    Sidney H. Schnoll

Authors
  1. Michael F. Weaver
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sidney H. Schnoll
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael F. Weaver .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Depts Psychiat & Neurobehav Sciences, Me, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, 22908, Virginia, USA

    Bankole A. Johnson

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Weaver, M.F., Schnoll, S.H. (2010). Ketamine and Phencyclidine. In: Johnson, B. (eds) Addiction Medicine. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0338-9_28

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0338-9_28

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-0337-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-0338-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation