Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Phenology of Gross Ecosystem Productivity and Ecosystem Respiration in Temperate Hardwood and Conifer Chronosequences

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Phenology of Ecosystem Processes

Abstract

The relative duration of active and dormant seasons has a strong influence on ecosystem net carbon balance and its carbon uptake potential. While recognized as an important source of temporal and spatial variability, the seasonality of ecosystem carbon balance has not been studied explicitly, and still lacks standard terminology. In the current chapter, we apply a curve fitting procedure to define seasonal transitions in ecosystem gross productivity (GEP) and respiration (ER), and we show that the temporal changes in these two fluxes are not synchronous, and that the transition dates and rates of change vary both across sites and between years. Carbon uptake period (CUP), a common phenological metric, defined from ecosystem net carbon exchange (NEE), is related to these periods of activity, but the differential sensitivities of GEP and ER to environmental factors complicate the interpretation of variation in CUP alone. On a landscape scale, differences in stand age represent a major source of heterogeneity reflected in different flux capacities as well as microclimate. In the current study, we evaluate age-related differences in the phenological transitions of GEP and ER using hardwood and conifer chronosequences. While a significant portion of variability in GEP seasonality was explained with stand age, the influence of interannual climatic variability exceeded these, and was the predominant factor affecting ER seasonality. The length of the active season (ASL) varied more due to differences in the timing of the end rather than the start of the active period. ASL of GEP was consistently greater in conifers than hardwoods, but the opposite was true for ER.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

ASLAH :

length of active season (days)

ASLBG :

length of active season (days)

ASLx0 :

length of active season (days)

EOS:

end of active season (DOY)

x0:

day of half-maximum flux (DOY)

LFD:

length of flux development period (days)

LFR:

length of flux recession period (days)

LPF:

length of peak flux period (days)

RD:

rate of development (g C m−2 d−1)

RR:

rate of recession (g C m−2 d−1)

SOS:

start of active season (DOY) Subscripts appended to any of the above

GEP :

index or date referring to gross ecosystem productivity

ER :

index or date referring to ecosystem respiration Site abbreviations

IH03:

intermediate hardwood, 2003

IP03:

intermediate red pine, 2003

MH02:

mature hardwood, 2002

MH03:

mature hardwood, 2003

MP02:

mature red pine, 2002

MP03:

mature red pine, 2003

YH02:

young hardwood, 2002

YP02:

young red pine, 2002

References

  • Ahas, R., Aasa, A., Menzel, A., Fedotova, V.G. and Scheifinger, H. (2002) Changes in European spring phenology. Int. J. Climatol., 22, 1727–1738.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amiro, B.D. (2001) Paired-tower measurements of carbon and energy fluxes following disturbance in the boreal forest. Global Change Biol., 7, 253–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amiro, B.D., Orchansky, A.L., Barr, A.G., Black, T.A., Chambers, S.D., Chapin III, F.S., Goulden, M.L., Litvak, M., Liu, H.P. and McCaughey, J.H. (2006) The effect of post-fire stand age on the boreal forest energy balance. Agric. For. Meteorol., 140, 41–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aurela, M., Laurila, T. and Tuovinen, J.P. (2004) The timing of snow melt controls the annual CO2 balance in a subarctic fen. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, art. no. L16119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Badeck, F.W., Bondeau, A., Bottcher, K., Doktor, D., Lucht, W., Schaber, J. and Sitch, S. (2004) Responses of spring phenology to climate change. New Phytol., 162, 295–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldocchi, D.D., Black, T.A., Curtis, P.S., Falge, E., Fuentes, J.D., Granier, A., Gu, L., Knohl, A., Pilegaard, K., Schmid, H.P., Valentini, R., Wilson, K., Wofsy, S., Xu, L. and Yamamoto, S. (2005) Predicting the onset of net carbon uptake by deciduous forests with soil temperature and climate data: a synthesis of FLUXNET data. Int. J. Biometeorol., 49, 377–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldocchi, D.D., Falge, E., Gu, L.H., Olson, R., Hollinger, D., Running, S., Anthoni, P., Bernhofer, C., Davis, K.J., Evans, R., Fuentes, J.D., Goldstein, A.H., Katul, G., Law, B.E., Lee, X., Malhi, Y., Meyers, T., Munger, W., Oechel, W., Paw U, K.T., Pilegaard, K., Schmid, H.P., Valentini, R., Verma, S., Vesala, T., Wilson, K. and Wofsy, S. (2001) FLUXNET: A new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 82, 2415–2434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, A.G., Black, T.A., Hogg, E.H., Griffis, T.J., Morgenstern, K., Kljun, N., Theede, A. and Nesic, Z. (2007) Climatic controls on the carbon and water balances of a boreal aspen forest, 1994-2003. Global Change Biol., 13, 561–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, A.G., Black, T.A., Hogg, E.H., Kljun, N., Morgenstern, K. and Nesic, Z. (2004) Inter-annual variability in the leaf area index of a boreal aspen-hazelnut forest in relation to net ecosystem production. Agric. For. Meteorol., 126, 237–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beaubien, E.G. and Freeland, H.J. (2000) Spring phenology trends in Alberta, Canada: links to ocean temperature. Int. J. Biometeorol., 44, 53–59.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, P.S.A., Atzberger, C., Hogda, K.A., Johansen, B. and Skidmore, A.K. (2006) Improved monitoring of vegetation dynamics at very high latitudes: A new method using MODIS NDVI. Remote Sens. Environ., 100, 321–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergeron, O., Margolis, H.A., Coursolle, C. and Giasson, M.-A. (2008) How does forest harvest influence carbon dioxide fluxes of black spruce ecosystems in eastern North America? Agric. For. Meteorol., doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2007.10.012, 148, 537–548.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, T.A., Chen, W.J., Barr, A.G., Arain, M.A., Chen, Z., Nesic, Z., Hogg, E.H., Neumann, H.H. and Yang, P.C. (2000) Increased carbon sequestration by a boreal deciduous forest in years with a warm spring. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 1271–1274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bogaert, J., Zhou, L., Tucker, C.J., Myneni, R.B. and Ceulemans, R. (2002) Evidence for a persistent and extensive greening trend in Eurasia inferred from satellite vegetation index data. J. Geophys. Res. (D Atmos.), 107, 10.1029/2001JD001075.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonan, G.B., Levis, S., Sitch, S., Vertenstein, M. and Oleson, K.W. (2003) A dynamic global vegetation model for use with climate models: concepts and description of simulated vegetation dynamics. Global Change Biol., 9, 1543–1566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bond-Lamberty, B., Gower, S.T., Ahl, D.E. and Thornton, P.E. (2005a) Reimplementation of the Biome-BGC model to simulate successional change. Tree Physiol., 25, 413–424.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bond-Lamberty, B., Wang, C.K. and Gower, S.T. (2005b) Spatiotemporal measurement and modeling of stand-level boreal forest soil temperatures. Agric. For. Meteorol., 131, 27–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cao, M.K., Prince, S.D., Small, J. and Goetz, S.J. (2004) Remotely sensed interannual variations and trends in terrestrial net primary productivity 1981–2000. Ecosystems, 7, 233–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carrara, A., Kowalski, A., Neirynck, J., Janssens, I.A., Yuste, J.C. and Ceulemans, R. (2003) Net ecosystem CO2 exchange of mixed forest in Belgium over 5 years. Agric. For. Meteorol., 119, 209–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chmielewski, F.M. and Rötzer, T. (2001) Response of tree phenology to climate change across Europe. Agric. For. Meteorol., 108, 101–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chuine, I. (2000) A unified model for budburst of trees. J. Theor. Biol., 207, 337–347.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chuine, I. and Beaubien, E.G. (2001) Phenology is a major determinant of tree species range. Ecol. Lett., 4, 500–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Churkina, G., Schimel, D., Braswell, B.H. and Xiao, X. (2005) Spatial analysis of growing season length control over net ecosystem exchange. Global Change Biol., 11, 1777–1787.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeForest, J.L., Noormets, A., Tenney, G., Sun, G., McNulty, S.G. and Chen, J. (2006) Phenophases in an oak-dominated forest alter the soil respiration-temperature relationship. Int. J. Biometeorol., 51, 135–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Desai, A.R., Noormets, A., Bolstad, P.V., Chen, J., Cook, B.D., Davis, K.J., Euskirchen, E.S., Gough, C., Martin, J.M., Ricciuto, D.M., Schmid, H.P., Tang, J. and Wang, W. (2008) Influence of vegetation type, stand age and climate on carbon dioxide fluxes across the Upper Midwest, USA: Implications for regional scaling of carbon flux. Agric. For. Meteorol., 148, 288–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Devine, W.D. and Harrington, C.A. (2007) Influence of harvest residues and vegetation on microsite soil and air temperatures in a young conifer plantation. Agric. For. Meteorol., 145, 125–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estrella, N., Sparks, T.H. and Menzel, A. (2007) Trends and temperature response in the phenology of crops in Germany. Global Change Biol., 13, 1737–1747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ewers, B.E., Gower, S.T., Bond-Lamberty, B. and Wang, C.K. (2005) Effects of stand age and tree species on canopy transpiration and average stomatal conductance of boreal forests. Plant Cell Environ., 28, 660–678.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falge, E., Baldocchi, D., Olson, R., Anthoni, P., Aubinet, M., Bern-hofer, C., Burba, G., Ceulemans, R., Clement, R., Dolman, H., Granier, A., Gross, P., Grünwald, T., Hollinger, D., Jensen, N.-O., Katul, G., Keronen, P., Kowalski, A., Lai, C.T., Law, B.E., Meyers, T., Moncrieff, J., Moors, E., Munger, J.W., Pilegaard, K., Rannik, Ãœ., Rebmann, C., Suyker, A., Tenhunen, J., Tu, K., Verma, S., Vesala, T., Wilson, K. and Wofsy, S. (2001) Gap filling strategies for defensible annual sums of net ecosystem exchange. Agric. For. Meteorol., 107, 43–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falge, E., Baldocchi, D.D., Tenhunen, J., Aubinet, M., Bakwin, P.S., Berbigier, P., Bernhofer, C., Burba, G., Clement, R., Davis, K.J., Elbers, J.A., Goldstein, A.H., Grelle, A., Granier, A., Guddmundsson, J., Hollinger, D., Kowalski, A.S., Katul, G., Law, B.E., Malhi, Y., Meyers, T., Monson, R.K., Munger, J.W., Oechel, W., Paw U, K.T., Pilegaard, K., Rannik, Ãœ., Rebmann, C., Suyker, A., Valentini, R., Wilson, K. and Wofsy, S. (2002) Seasonality of ecosystem respiration and gross primary production as derived from FLUXNET measurements. Agric. For. Meteorol., 113, 53–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, C.B., Lobell, D.B., Peters, H.A. and Chiariello, N.R. (2007) Feedbacks of terrestrial ecosystems to climate change. Annu. Rev. Environ. Res., 32, 1–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, J.I., Richardson, A.D. and Mustard, J.F. (2007) Phenology model from surface meteorology does not capture satellite-based greenup estimations. Global Change Biol., 13, 707–721.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitter, A.H. and Fitter, R.S.R. (2002) Rapid Changes in Flowering Time in British Plants. Science, 296, 1689–1691.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gore, A. (2006) An Inconvenient Truth: The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming and What We Can Do About It. Rodale Books: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goulden, M.L., Munger, J.W., Fan, S.M., Daube, B.C. and Wofsy, S.C. (1996) Exchange of carbon dioxide by a deciduous forest: Response to interannual climate variability. Science, 271, 1576–1578.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goulden, M.L., Winston, G.C., McMillan, A.M.S., Litvak, M.E., Read, E.L., Rocha, A.V. and Elliot, J.R. (2006) An eddy covariance mesonet to measure the effect of forest age on land-atmosphere exchange. Global Change Biol., 12, 2146–2162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groisman, P.Y., Karl, T.R. and Knight, R.W. (1994) Observed impact of snow cover on the heat balance and the rise of continental spring temperatures. Science, 263, 198–200.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gu, L., Post, W.M., Baldocchi, D., Black, T.A., Verma, S.B., Vesala, T. and Wofsy, S.C. (2003). Phenology of vegetation photosynthesis. In: Schwartz, M.D. (Ed.) Phenology: An Integrated Environmental Science. Kluwer; Dordecht, pp. 467–485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, J., Sato, M., Lacis, A. and Ruedy, R. (1997) The missing climate forcing. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences, 352, 231–240.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hargrove, W.W. and Hoffman, F.M. (2005) Potential of multivariate quantitative methods for delineation and visualization of ecoregions. Environ. Manage., 34, S39–S60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hegerl, G.C., vonStorch, H., Hasselmann, K., Santer, B.D., Cubasch, U. and Jones, P.D. (1996) Detecting greenhouse-gas-induced climate change with an optimal fingerprint method. J. Clim., 9, 2281–2306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heide, O.M. (2003) High autumn temperature delays spring bud burst in boreal trees, counterbalancing the effect of climatic warming. Tree Physiol., 23, 931–936.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heijmans, M.M.P.D., Arp, W.J. and Chapin, F.S. (2004) Carbon dioxide and water vapour exchange from understory species in boreal forest. Agric. For. Meteorol., 123, 135–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hollinger, D.Y., Aber, J.D., Dail, B., Davidson, E.A., Goltz, S.M., Hughes, H., Leclerc, M.Y., Lee, J.T., Richardson, A.D., Rodrigues, C., Scott, N.A., Achuatavarier, D. and Walsh, J. (2004) Spatial and temporal variability in forest-atmosphere CO2 exchange. Global Change Biol., 10, 1689–1706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hollinger, D.Y. and Richardson, A.D. (2005) Uncertainty in eddy covariance measurements and its application to physiological models. Tree Physiol., 25, 873–885.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Houghton, R.A., Davidson, E.A. and Woodwell, G.M. (1998) Missing sinks, feedbacks, and understanding the role of terrestrial ecosystems in the global carbon balance. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 12, 25–34.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Pachauri, R.K. and Reisinger, A. (Eds.), IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp.104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, R.B., Lechowicz, M.J., Li, X. and Mooney, H.A. (2001). Phenology, growth, and allocation in global terrestrial productivity. In: Saugier, B., Roy, J. and Mooney, H.A. (Eds.), Terrestrial Global Productivity: Past, Present, and Future. Academic: San Diego, CA, pp. 61–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kathuroju, N., White, M.A., Symanzik, J., Schwartz, M.D., Powell, J.A. and Nemani, R.R. (2007) On the use of the advanced very high resolution radiometer for development of prognostic land surface phenology models. Ecol. Model., 201, 144–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keeling, C.D., Chin, J.F.S. and Whorf, T.P. (1996) Increased activity of northern vegetation inferred from atmospheric CO2 measurements. Nature, 382, 146–149.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, K., Leinonen, I., Bartelink, H.H., Berbigier, P., Borghetti, M., Bernhofer, C., Cienciala, E., Dolman, A.J., Froer, O., Gracia, C.A., Granier, A., Grünwald, T., Hari, P., Jans, W., Kellomäki, S., Loustau, D., Magnani, F., Markkanen, T., Matteucci, G., Mohren, G.M.J., Moors, E., Nissinen, A., Peltola, H., Sabate, S., Sanchez, A., Sontag, M., Valentini, R. and Vesala, T. (2002) Evaluation of six process-based forest growth models using eddy-covariance measurements of CO2 and H2O fluxes at six forest sites in Europe. Global Change Biol., 8, 213–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, K., Leinonen, I. and Loustau, D. (2000) The importance of phenology for the evaluation of impact of climate change on growth of boreal, temperate and Mediterranean forests ecosystems: an overview. Int. J. Biometeorol., 44, 67–75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lenton, T.M. (2000) Land and ocean carbon cycle feedback effects on global warming in a simple Earth system model. Tellus B, 52, 1159–1188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linderholm, H.W. (2006) Growing season changes in the last century. Agric. For. Meteorol., 137, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lu, P., Yu, Q., Liu, J. and Lee, X. (2006) Advance of tree-flowering dates in response to urban climate change. Agric. For. Meteorol., 138, 120–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mäkelä, A., Hari, P., Berninger, F., Hänninen, H. and Nikinmaa, E. (2004) Acclimation of photosynthetic capacity in Scots pine to the annual cycle of temperature. Tree Physiol., 24, 369–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mäkelä, A., Pulkkinen, M., Kolari, P., Lagergren, F., Berbigier, P., Lindroth, A., Loustau, D., Nikinmaa, E., Vesala, T. and Hari, P. (2008) Developing an empirical model of stand GPP with the LUE approach: analysis of eddy covariance data at five contrasting conifer sites in Europe. Global Change Biol., 14, 92–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meir, P., Cox, P. and Grace, J. (2006) The influence of terrestrial ecosystems on climate. Trends Ecol. Evol., 21, 254–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menzel, A. (2002) Phenology: Its importance to the global change community – An editorial comment. Clim. Change, 54, 379–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menzel, A. (2003) Plant phenological anomalies in Germany and their relation to air temperature and NAO. Clim. Change, 57, 243–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menzel, A. and Fabian, P. (1999) Growing season extended in Europe. Nature, 397, 659–659.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moffat, A.M., Papale, D., Reichstein, M., Hollinger, D.Y., Richardson, A.D., Barr, A.G., Beckstein, C., Braswell, B.H., Churkina, G., Desai, A.R., Falge, E., Gove, J.H., Heimann, M., Hui, D., Jarvis, A.J., Kattge, J., Noormets, A. and Stauch, V.J. (2007) Comprehensive comparison of gap filling techniques for eddy covariance net carbon fluxes. Agric. For. Meteorol., 147, 209–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morecroft, M.D., Stokes, V.J. and Morison, J.I.L. (2003) Seasonal changes in the photosynthetic capacity of canopy oak (Quercus robur) leaves: the impact of slow development on annual carbon uptake. Int. J. Biometeorol., 47, 221–226.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Myneni, R.B., Keeling, C.D., Tucker, C.J., Asrar, G. and Nemani, R.R. (1997) Increased plant growth in the northern high latitudes from 1981 to 1991. Nature, 386, 698–702.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noormets, A., Chen, J. and Crow, T.R. (2007) Age-dependent changes in ecosystem carbon fluxes in managed forests in northern Wisconsin, USA. Ecosystems, 10, 187–203.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noormets, A., Desai, A.R., Cook, B.D., Euskirchen, E.S., Ricciuto, D.M., Davis, K.J., Bolstad, P.V., Schmid, H.P., Vogel, C.V., Carey, E.V., Su, H.B. and Chen, J. (2008) Moisture sensitivity of ecosystem respiration: Comparison of 14 forest ecosystems in the Upper Great Lakes Region, USA. Agric. For. Meteorol., 148, 216–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norby, R.J., Hartz-Rubin, J.S. and Verbrugge, M.J. (2003) Phenological responses in maple to experimental atmospheric warming and CO2 enrichment. Global Change Biol., 9, 1792–1801.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oechel, W.C., Vourlitis, G.L., Hastings, S.J., Zulueta, R.C., Hinzman, L. and Kane, D. (2000) Acclimation of ecosystem CO2 exchange in the Alaskan Arctic in response to decadal climate warming. Nature, 406, 978–981.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olesen, J.E., Carter, T.R., Diaz-Ambrona, C.H., Fronzek, S., Heid-mann, T., Hickler, T., Holt, T., Quemada, M., Ruiz-Ramos, M., Rubaek, G.H., Sau, F., Smith, B. and Sykes, M.T. (2007) Uncertainties in projected impacts of climate change on European agriculture and terrestrial ecosystems based on scenarios from regional climate models. Clim. Change, 81, 123–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parmesan, C. (2007) Influences of species, latitudes and methodologies on estimates of phenological response to global warming. Global Change Biol., 13, 1860–1872.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penuelas, J. and Filella, I. (2001) Responses to a Warming World. Science, 294, 793–794.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Penuelas, J., Filella, I. and Comas, P. (2002) Changed plant and animal life cycles from 1952 to 2000 in the Mediterranean region. Global Change Biol., 8, 531–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piao, S.L., Ciais, P., Friedlingstein, P., Peylin, P., Reichstein, M., Luyssaert, S., Margolis, H., Fang, J.Y., Barr, A., Chen, A.P., Grelle, A., Hollinger, D.Y., Laurila, T., Lindroth, A., Richardson, A.D. and Vesala, T. (2008) Net carbon dioxide losses of northern ecosystems in response to autumn warming. Nature, 451, 49–53.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, B.C., Brown, J.F., VanderZee, D., Loveland, T.L., Merchant, J.W. and Ohlen, D.O. (1994) Measuring phenological variability from satellite imagery. J. Veg. Sci., 5, 703–714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richter, D.D., Markewitz, D., Trumbore, S.E. and Wells, C.G. (1999) Rapid accumulation and turnover of soil carbon in a re-establishing forest. Nature, 400, 56–58.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Santer, B.D., Taylor, K.E., Wigley, T.M.L., Johns, T.C., Jones, P.D., Karoly, D.J., Mitchell, J.F.B., Oort, A.H., Penner, J.E., Ramaswamy, V., Schwarzkopf, M.D., Stouffer, R.J. and Tett, S. (1996) A search for human influences on the thermal structure of the atmosphere. Nature, 382, 39–46.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, K., Denning, A.S. and Leonard, O. (2005) The winter Arctic oscillation, the timing of spring, and carbon fluxes in the Northern Hemisphere. Global Biogeochem. Cycle, 19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger, W.H. and Lichter, J. (2001) Limited carbon storage in soil and litter of experimental forest plots under increased atmospheric CO2. Nature, 411, 466–469.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, M.D., Ahas, R. and Aasa, A. (2006) Onset of spring starting earlier across the Northern Hemisphere. Global Change Biol., 12, 343–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, M.D. and Chen, Z.Q. (2002) Examining the onset of spring in China. Clim. Res., 21, 157–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, M.D., Reed, B.C. and White, M.A. (2002) Assessing satellite-derived start-of-season measures in the conterminous USA. Int. J. Climatol., 22, 1793–1805.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, M.D. and Reiter, B.E. (2000) Changes in North American spring. Int. J. Climatol., 20, 929–932.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherry, R.A., Zhou, X., Gu, S., Arnone, J.A., III, Schimel, D.S., Verburg, P.S., Wallace, L.L. and Luo, Y. (2007) Divergence of reproductive phenology under climate warming. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 198–202.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, N.V., Saatchi, S.S. and Randerson, J.T. (2004) Trends in high northern latitude soil freeze and thaw cycles from 1988 to 2002. J. Geophys. Res., 109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stott, P.A., Tett, S.F.B., Jones, G.S., Allen, M.R., Mitchell, J.F.B. and Jenkins, G.J. (2000) External control of 20th century temperature by natural and anthropogenic forcings. Science, 290, 2133–2137.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suni, T., Berninger, F., Markkanen, T., Keronen, P., Rannik, Ãœ. and Vesala, T. (2003a) Interannual variability and timing of growing-season CO2 exchange in a boreal forest. J. Geophys. Res., 108, No. D9, 4265, doi:10.1029/2002JD002381, 2.1–2.8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suni, T., Berninger, F., Vesala, T., Markkanen, T., Hari, P., Mäkelä, A., Ilvesniemi, H., Hanninen, H., Nikinmaa, E., Huttula, T., Laurila, T., Aurela, M., Grelle, A., Lindroth, A., Arneth, A., Shi-bistova, O. and Lloyd, J. (2003b) Air temperature triggers the recovery of evergreen boreal forest photosynthesis in spring. Global Change Biol., 9, 1410–1426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tape, K., Sturm, M. and Racine, C. (2006) The evidence for shrub expansion in Northern Alaska and the Pan-Arctic. Global Change Biol., 12, 686–702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walther, G.-R., Post, E., Convey, P., Menzels, A., Parmesan, C., Beebee, T.J.C., Fromentin, J.-M., Hoegh-Guldberg, O. and Bairlein, F. (2002) Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature, 416, 389–395.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • White, M.A., Hoffman, F., Hargrove, W.W. and Nemani, R.R. (2005) A global framework for monitoring phenological responses to climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, Art. No. L04705.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, M.A. and Nemani, A.R. (2003) Canopy duration has little influence on annual carbon storage in the deciduous broad leaf forest. Global Change Biol., 9, 967–972.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, F., Ichii, K., White, M.A., Hashimoto, H., Michaelis, A.R., Votava, P., Zhu, A.X., Huete, A., Running, S.W. and Nemani, R.R. (2007) Developing a continental-scale measure of gross pri-mary production by combining MODIS and AmeriFlux data through Support Vector Machine approach. Remote Sens. Environ., 110, 109–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zha, T., Barr, A.G., Black, T.A., McCaughey, H., Bhatti, J.S., Hawthorne, I., Krishnan, P., Kidston, J., Saigusa, N., Shashkov, A. and Nesic, Z. (2008) Carbon sequestration in boreal Jack pine stands following harvesting. Global Change Biol., 15, 1475–1487.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, X.Y., Friedl, M.A., Schaaf, C.B., Strahler, A.H., Hodges, J.C.F., Gao, F., Reed, B.C. and Huete, A. (2003) Monitoring vegetation phenology using MODIS. Remote Sens. Environ., 84, 471–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by USDA Forest Service Southern Global Change Program (AN, JC) and National Science Foundation (JC). We thank Ben Bond-Lamberty, Eero Nikinmaa and Andrew Richardson for constructive comments.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

    Asko Noormets

  2. Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA

    Jiquan Chen

  3. Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA

    Lianhong Gu

  4. A. DesaiDepartment of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1225 West Dayton Street, Madison, WI, 53706, USA

    Ankur Desai

Authors
  1. Asko Noormets
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jiquan Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lianhong Gu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ankur Desai
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Asko Noormets .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. Forestry &, North Carolina State University, Main Campus Drive 920, Raleigh, 27695, U.S.A.

    Asko Noormets

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Noormets, A., Chen, J., Gu, L., Desai, A. (2009). The Phenology of Gross Ecosystem Productivity and Ecosystem Respiration in Temperate Hardwood and Conifer Chronosequences. In: Noormets, A. (eds) Phenology of Ecosystem Processes. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0026-5_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation