Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Aerosols in Titan's Atmosphere

  • Chapter
Titan from Cassini-Huygens

Abstract

Aerosols in Titan's atmosphere play important roles in the transfer of solar and thermal radiation, in Titan's heat balance, in forcing atmospheric dynamics, and as a sink for photochemical reactions. In this chapter we briefly summarize the history of our knowledge of their distribution and optical properties before concentrating in greater detail on current knowledge of their properties and roles in the physics and chemistry in Titan's atmosphere. We discuss the size, shape, optical properties, and the vertical distribution of Titan's aerosols. We discuss variations of the optical properties of the aerosols with wavelength, variations of the distribution of the aerosols over the disk of Titan, and the seasonal and long-term variations in structure. We discuss the visible and thermal opacity of the aerosols, and their roles in Titan's heat balance. We summarize the history and current state of laboratory simulations of these particles, and present our understanding of their formation and life cycles in one and two-dimensional microphysical models. We also discuss the presence, location, and variations in condensation clouds over Titan's disk. Finally, we indicate the prospects for further progress in understanding the origin, distribution, and properties of Titan's aerosols in the future.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Achterberg RK, Conrath BJ, Gierasch PJ, Flasar FM, Nixon CA (2008) Observation of a tilt of Titan's middle-atmospheric super-rotation. Icarus 197:549–555

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Ádámkovics M, Wong MH, Laver C, de Pater I (2007) Widespread morning drizzle on Titan. Science 318:962–965

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson CM, Bjoraker G, Achterberg R (2007) Altitude distribution and wavenumber dependence of Titan's photochemical aerosol from Cassini/CIRS Observations. B.A.A.S. 39:530

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson CM, Samuelson RE, Bjoraker GL, Achterberg RK (2009) Particle sizes and abundances of HC3 N and C4N2 ices in Titan's stratosphere at northern high latitudes. Submitted to Icarus

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Nun A, Kleinfeld I, Ganor E (1988) Shape and optical properties of aerosols formed by photolysis of acetylene, ethylene, and hydrogen cyanide. J Geophys Res 93:8383–8387

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Nun A, Dimitrov V, Tomasko M (2008) Titan's aerosols: comparison between our model and DISR findings. Planet Space Sci 56:708–714

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Barth EL, Toon OB (2006) Methane, ethane, and mixed clouds in Titan's atmosphere. Properties derived from microphysical modeling. Icarus 182:230–250

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Bernard J-M, Quirico E, Brissaud O, Montagnac G, Reynard B, McMillan P, Coll P, Nguyen M-J, Raulin F, Schmitt B (2006) Reflectance spectra and chemical structure of Titan's tholins: application to the analysis of Cassini—Huygens observations. Icarus 185:301–307

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown ME, Bouchez AH, Griffith CA (2002) Direct detection of tropo-spheric clouds near Titan's south pole. Nature 420:795–797

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Cabane M, Chassefiere E, Israel G (1992) Formation and growth of photochemical aerosols in Titan's atmosphere. Icarus 96:176–189

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Cabane M, Rannou P, Chassefiere E, Israel G (1993) Fractal aggregates in Titan's atmosphere. Planet Space Sci 41:257–267

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Coll P, Ramirez SI, Navarro-Gonzalez R, Raulin F (2001) Chemical and optical behaviour of tholins, laboratory analogues of Titan aerosols. Adv Space Res 27:289–297

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Courtin R, Wagener R, McKay CP, Caldwell J, Fricke KH, Raulin F, Bruston P (1991) UVspectroscopy of Titan's atmosphere, planetary organic chemistry and prebiological synthesis. Icarus 90:43–56

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis DB, Hatch CD, Hasenkopf CA, Toon OB, Tolbert MA, McKay CP, Khare BN (2008) Laboratory studies of methane and ethane adsorption and nucleation onto organic particles: application to Titan's clouds. Icarus 195:792–801

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • de Kok R, Irwin PGJ, Teanby NA, Nixon CA, Jennings DE, Fletcher L, Howett C, Calcutt SB, Bowles NE, Flasar FM, Taylor FW (2007) Characteristics of Titan's stratospheric aerosols and condensate clouds from Cassini CIRS far-infrared spectra. Icarus 191:223–235

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Fulchignoni M et al (2005) In situ measurements of the physical characteristics of Titan's environment. Nature 438:785–791

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith CA, Owen T, Miller GA, Geballe T (1998) Transient clouds in Titan's lower atmosphere. Nature 395:575–578

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith CA, Penteado P, Baines K, Drossart P, Barnes J, Bellucci G, Bibring J, Brown R, Buratti B, Capaccioni F, Cerroni P, Clark R, Combes M, Coradini A, Cruikshank D, Formisano V, Jaumann R, Langevin Y, Matson D, McCord T, Mennella V, Nelson R, Nicholson P, Sicardy B, Sotin C, Soderblom LA, Kursinski R (2005) The evolution of Titan's mid-latitude clouds. Science 310:474–477

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith CA, Penteado P, Rannou P, Brown R, Boudon V, Baines KH, Clark R, Drossart P, Buratti B, Nicholson P, McKay CP, Coustenis A, Negrao A, Jaumann R (2006) Evidence for a polar ethane cloud on Titan. Science 313:1620–1622

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Hourdin F, Talagrand O, Sadourny R, Courtin R, Gautier D, McKay CP (1995) Numerical simulation of the general circulation of the atmosphere of Titan. Icarus 117:358–374

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Hutzell WT, McKay CP, Toon OB, Hourdin F (1996) Simulations of Titan's brightness by a two dimensional haze model. Icarus 119:112–129

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Imanaka H, Smith MA (2007) Role of photoionization in the formation of complex organic molecules in Titan's upper atmosphere. Geophys Res Lett 34:L02204. doi: 10.1029/2006GL028317

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Imanaka H, Khare BN, Elsila JE, Bakes ELO, McKay CP, Cruikshank DP, Sugita S, Matsui T, Zare RN (2004) Laboratory experiments of Titaan tholin formed in cold plasma at various pressures: implications for nitrogen-containing polycyclis aromatic compounds in Titan haze. Icarus 168:344–366

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Jennings DE, Flasar FM, Kunde VG, Samuelson RE, Pearl JC, Nixon CA, Carlson RC, Mamoutkine AA, Brasunas J, Guandique CE, Achterberg RK, Bjoraker GL, Romani PN, Segura ME, Albright SA, Elliott MH, Tingley JS, Calcutt S, Coustenis A, Courtin R (2009) Titan's surface brightness temperatures. Ap J Lett 691:L103–L105

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Karkoschka E (1998) Methane, ammonia, and temperature measurements of the Jovian planets and Titan from CCD spectrophotometry. Icarus 133:134–146

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Karkoschka E, Lorenz RD (1997) Latitudinal variation of aerosol sizes inferred from Titan's shadow. Icarus 125:369–379

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Karkoschka E, Tomasko MG, Doose LR, See C, McFarlane EA, Schroder SE, Rizk B (2007) DISR imaging and geometry of the descent of the Huygens probe within Titan's atmosphere. Planet Space Sci 55:1896–1935

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Khanna RK, Perera-Jarmer MA, Ospina MJ (1987) Vibrational infrared and Raman spectra of dicyanoacetylene. Spectrochim Acta 43A:421–425

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Khare BN, Sagan C, Arakawa ET, Suits F, Calcott TA, Williams MW (1984) Optical constants of organic tholins produced in a simulated Titanian atmosphere: from X-ray to microwave frequencies. Icarus 60:127–137

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Lavvas P, Yelle RV, Vuitton V (2009) The detached haze layer in Titan's atmosphere. Icarus, 201, 626–633.

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Liang MC, Yung Y, Shemansky D (2007) Photolytically generated aerosols in the mesosphere and thermosphere of Titan. Astrophys J 661:L199–L202

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood GW, Thompson DT (1979) A relationship between solar activity and planetary albedos. Nature 280:43–45

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz RD, Smith PH, Lemmon MT, Karkoschka E, Lockwood GW, Caldwell J (1997) Titan's north-south asymmetry from HST and Voyager imaging: comparison with models and ground-based photometry. Icarus 127:173–189

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Mayo LA, Samuelson RE (2005) Condensate clouds in Titan's north polar Stratosphere. Icarus 176:316–330

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • McGuigan M, Waite JH, Imanaka H, Sacks RD (2006) Analysis of Titan tholin pyrolysis products by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography–time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 1132:280–288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKay CP, Pollack JB, Courtin R (1989) The thermal structure of Titan's atmosphere. Icarus 80:23–53

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell JL, Pierrelhumbert RT, Frierson DMW, Caballero R (2006) The dynamics behind Titan's methane clouds. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 103:18421–18426

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen M-J, Raulin F, Coll P, Derenne S, Szopa C, Cernogora G, Israël G, Bernard J-M (2008) From Titan's tholins to Titan's aerosols: Isotopic study and chemical evolution at Titan's surface. Adv Space Res 42:48–53

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Niemann, HB, Atreya, SK, Bauer, SJ, Carignan, GR, Demick, JE, Frost, RL, Gautier, D, Haberman, JA, Harpold, DN, Hunten, DM, Israel, G, Lunine, JI, Kasprzak, WT, Owen, TC, Paulkovich, M, Raulin, F, Raaen, E, Way, SH (2005). The abundances of constituents of Titan's atmosphere from the GCMS instrument on the Huygens probe NATURE 438, 779–784

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Penteado PF, Griffith CA, Tomasko MG, Engel S, See C, Doose L (2009) Latitudinal variations in Titan's methane and haze from Cassini VIMS observations. Icarus (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Podolak M, Danielson RE (1977) Axel dust on Saturn and Titan. Icarus 30:479–492

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Podolak M, Noy N, Bar-Nun A (1979) Photochemical aerosols in Titan's atmosphere. Icarus 40:193–198

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Porco CC et al (2005) Imaging of Titan from the Cassini spacecraft. Nature 434:159–168

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rages K, Pollack JB (1983) Vertical distribution of scattering Hazes in Titan's upper atmosphere. Icarus 55:50–62

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rages K, Pollack JB, Smith PH (1983) Size estimates of Titan's aerosols based on Voyager high-phase-angle images. J Geophys Res 88, (NA11):8721–8728

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Ramirez SI, Coll P, da Silva A, Navarro-González R, Lafait J, Raulin F (2002) Complex refractive index of Titan's aerosol analogues in the 200–900 nm domain. Icarus 256:515–529

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rannou P, Cabane M, Chassefoere E, Botet R, McKay CP, Courtin R (1995) Titan's geometric albedo: role of the fractal structure of the aerosols. Icarus 118:355–372

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rannou P, Cabane M, Botet R, Chassefiere E (1997) A new interpretation of scattered light measurements at Titan's limb. J Geophys Res 102:10977–11013

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rannou P, McKay CP, Lorenz RD (2003) A model of Titan's haze of fractal aerosols constrained by multiple observations. Planet Space Sci 51:963–976

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rannou P, Montmessin F, Hourdin F, Lebonnois F (2006) The latitudinal distribution of clouds on Titan. Science 311:201–205

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson MI, Toigo AD, Newman CE (2007) PlanetWRF: a general purpose, local to global numerical model for planetary atmospheric and climate dynamics. J Geophys Res 112:E09001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodin AV, Keller HU, Skorov YuV, Doose L, Tomasko MG (2009) Microphysical processes in Titan haze inferred from DISR/Huygens data. Icarus, (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Roe HG, de Pater I, Macintosh BA, McKay CP (2002) Titan's clouds from Gemini and Keck adaptive optics imaging. Astrophys J 581:1399–1406

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Roe HG, Bouchez AH, Trujillo CA, Schaller EL, Brown ME (2005a) Discovery of temperate latitude clouds on Titan. Astrophys J 618: L49–L52

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Roe HG, Brown ME, Schaller EL, Bouchez AH, Trujillo CA (2005b) Geographic control of Titan's mid-latitude clouds. Science 310:477–479

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Roman MT, West RA, Banfield DJ, Gierasch PJ, Achterberg RK, Nixon CA, Thomas PC (2009) Determining a tilt in Titan's north–south albedo asymmetry from Cassini images. Icarus (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sagan C, Khare BN (1979) Tholins: organic chemistry of interstellar grains and gas. Nature 277:102–108

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sagan C, Thompson WR (1984) Production and condensation of organic gases in the atmosphere of Titan. Icarus 59:133–161

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Samuelson RE, Mayo LA (1991) Thermal infrared properties of Titan's stratospheric aerosol. Icarus 91:207–219

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Samuelson RE, Mayo LA, Knuckles MA, Khanna RJ (1997) C 4N2 ice in Titan's north polar stratosphere. Planet Space Sci 45:941–948

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Samuelson RE, Smith MD, Achterberg RK, Pearl JC (2007) Cassini CIRS update on stratospheric ices at Titan's winter pole. Icarus 189:63–71

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Schaller EL, Brown ME, Roe HG, Bouchez AH, Trujillo CA (2006) Dissipation of Titan's south polar clouds. Icarus 184:517–523

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Shemansky D (2006) (needs title) in Abstracts of 36th COSPAR Scientific Assembly, 2006 July 16–23, Beijing, China (Paris: COSPAR), 2748

    Google Scholar 

  • Shemansky DE, Stewart AIF, West RA, Esposito LW, Hallett JT, Liu XM (2005a) The Cassini UVIS stellar probe of the Titan atmosphere. Science 308:978–982

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Shemansky DE, Stewart AIF, West RA, Esposito LW, Hallett JT, Liu XM (2005b) The Cassini UVIS stellar probe of the Titan atmosphere. Science 308:978–982

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sicardy B., et al. (2006) The two Titan stellar occultations of 14 November 2003. J Geophys Res 111:E11S91, doi: 10.1029/2005JE002624

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Signorell R, Jetzki M (2007) Phase behavior of methane haze. Phys Rev Lett . doi:10.1103/Phys Rev Lett.98.013401

    Google Scholar 

  • Sromovsky LA, Suomi VE, Pollack JB, Krauss RJ, Limaye SS, Owen T, Revercomb HE, Sagan C (1981) Implications of Titan's north– south brightness asymmetry. Nature 292:698–702

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Tokano T, Neubauer FM, Laube, McKay CP (1999) Seasonal variation of Titan's atmospheric structure simulated by a general circulation model. Planet Space Sci 47:493–520

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasko MG, Smith PH (1982) Photometry and polarimetry of Titan: pioneer 11 observations and their implications for aerosol properties. Icarus 51:65–95

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasko MG, Buchhauser D, Bushroe M, Dafoe LE, Doose LR, Eibl A, Fellows C, McFarlane E, Prout GM, Pringle MJ, Rizk B, See C, Smith PH, Tsetsenekos K (2002) The descent imager/spectral radiometer (DISR) experiment on the Huygens entry probe of Titan. Space Sci Rev 104:469–551

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasko MG, Archinal B, Becker T, Bezard B, Bushroe M, Combes M, Cook D, Coustenis A, de Bergh C, Dafoe LE, Doose L, Doute S, Eibl A, Engel S, Gliem F, Grieger B, Holso K, Howington-Kraus E, Karkoschka E, Keller HU, Kirk R, Kramm R, Kuppers M, Lanagan P, Lellouch E, Lemmon M, Lunine J, McFarlane E, Moores J, Prout GM, Rizk B, Rosiek M, Rueffer P, Schroder SE, Schmitt B, See C, Smith P, Soderblom L, Thomas N, West RA (2005) Rain, winds and haze during the Huygens probe's descent to Titan's surface. Nature 438:765–778

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasko MG, Bezard B, Doose L, Engel S, Karkoschka E (2008b) Measurements of methane absorption by the descent imager/spectral radiometer (DISR) during its descent through Titan's atmosphere. Planet Space Sci 56:624–647

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasko MG, Bezard B, Doose L, Engel S, Karkoschka E, Vinatier S (2008c). Heat balance in Titan's atmosphere. Planet Space Sci 56:648–659

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasko MG, Doose L, Engel S, Dafoe LE, West R, Lemmon M, Karkoschka E (2008a) A model of Titan's aerosols based on measurements made inside the atmosphere. Planet Space Sci 56:669–707

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasko MG, Doose LR, Dafoe LE, See C (2009) Limits on the size of aerosols from measurements of linear polarization in Titan's atmosphere. Icarus ( in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Toon OB, McKay CP, Courtin R, Ackerman TP (1988) Methane rain on Titan. Icarus 75:255–284

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Toon OB, McKay CP, Griffith CA, Turco RP (1992) A physical model of Titan's aerosols. Icarus 95:24–53

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Trafton LM (1973) Titan's spectrum and atmospheric composition. In Hunten DM (ed) The atmosphere of Titan. NASA SP-340, pp 17–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Tran BN, Force M, Briggs RG, Ferris JP, Persans P, Chera JJ (2008) Titan's atmospheric chemistry: photolysis of gas mixtures containing hydrogen cyanide and carbon monoxide at 185 and 254 nm. Icarus 193:224–232

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Turtle EP, Perry JE, McEwen AS, DelGenio AD, Barbara J, West RA, Fussner S, Dawson DD, Porco CC (2009) Cassini imaging of Titan's high-latitude lakes, clouds, and south-polar surface changes. Geophys Res Lett (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Waite JH Jr, Young DT, Cravens TE, Coates AJ, Crary FJ, Magee B, Westlake J (2007) The process of tholin formation in Titan's upper atmosphere. Science 316:870–875

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Walterscheid RL, Schubert G (2006) A vital explanation for Titan's haze layers. Icarus 183:471–478

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • West RA (1991) Optical properties of aggregate particles whose outer diameter is comparable to the wavelength. Appl Opt 30:5316–5324

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • West RA, Smith PH (1991) Evidence for aggregate particles in the atmosphere of Titan and Jupiter. Icarus 90:330–333

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • West RA, Lane AL, Hart H, Simmons KE, Hord CW, Coffeen DL, Esposito LW, Satao M, Pomphrey RB (1983) Voyager 2 photopola-rimeter observations of Titan. J Geophys Res 88:8699–9708

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • West RA, Pitman KM, Martonchik J V, Dumont PJ (2008) Titan's stratospheric haze and its effect on surface contrast, Titan after Cassini—Huygens Book Symposium, Corpus Christi, TX, July 7–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson EH, Atreya SK (2003) Chemical sources of haze formation in Titan's atmosphere. Planet Space Sci 51:1017–1033

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Young DT et al (2004) Cassini plasma spectrometer investigation. Space Sci Rev 114:1–112

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Yung YL, Allen M, Pinto JP (1984) Photochemistry of the atmosphere of Titan: comparison between model and observations. Astrophys J Suppl Ser 55:465–506

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA

    Martin G. Tomasko

  2. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA, 91109, USA

    Robert A. West

Authors
  1. Martin G. Tomasko
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Robert A. West
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Arizona, 1629 E. University Blvd., Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA

    Robert H. Brown

  2. ESA Space Science, Astrophysics Division, ESTEC, Noordwijk, AG, 2200, Netherlands

    Jean-Pierre Lebreton

  3. Space Research Division, Southwest Research Institute (SWRI), 6220 Clebra Road, 28510, San Antonio, TX, 78228, USA

    J. Hunter Waite

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Tomasko, M.G., West, R.A. (2009). Aerosols in Titan's Atmosphere. In: Brown, R.H., Lebreton, JP., Waite, J.H. (eds) Titan from Cassini-Huygens. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9215-2_12

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation