Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Incursion Management in the Face of Multiple Uncertainties: A Case Study of an Unidentified Nematode Associated with Dying Pines Near Melbourne, Australia

  • Chapter
Book cover Pine Wilt Disease: A Worldwide Threat to Forest Ecosystems

Abstract

In late November 1999, dying pine trees were observed near the docks in Melbourne. The cause was initially identified as Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the pinewood nematode. However, it was soon discovered that it was another nematode, Bursaphelenchus hunanensis, which was associated with the dying pine trees. Very little was known about the biology or pathogenicity of this species, except that it had never before been recorded in Australia. Other dying trees were soon discovered with the nematode, and deciding on an appropriate response became a critical issue. This paper describes the subsequent events in the face of the uncertainty regarding the pathogenicity of the nematode, its origin, its vector, and its biology, particularly dispersal. More general principles can be drawn from this experience regarding the management of incursions of pinewood and other nematodes. There may also be important lessons regarding spread of nematodes associated with wood and insects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Aikawa, T., Togashi, K. and Kosaka, H. (2003). Different developmental responses of virulent and avirulent isolates of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae), to the insect vector, Monochamus alternatus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). Environmental Entomology 32: 96–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, M.C. (2005). Potential applications of population viability analysis to risk assessment for invasive species. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 11: 1083–1095.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andrassy, I. (1992). A short census of free-living nematodes. Fundamental and Applied Nematology 15: 187–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arakawa, Y and Togashi, K. (2002). Newly discovered transmission pathway of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus from males of the beetle Monochamus alternatus to Pinus densiflora trees via oviposition wounds. Journal of Nematology 34: 396–404.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arim, M., Abades, S.R., Neill, P.E., Lima, M. and Marquet, P.A. (2006). Spread dynamics of invasive species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103: 374–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Australian Bureau of Statistics (2005). Year Book 2005. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batabyal, A.A. and Beladi, H. (2006). International trade and biological invasions: A queuing theoretic analysis of the prevention problem. \it European Journal of Operational Research 170: 758–770.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baujard, P. (1980). Trois nouvelles especes de Bursaphelenchus (Nematoda: Tylenchida) et remarques sur le genre. Revue de Nematologie 3: 167–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bello, A., Robertson, L., Diez-Rojo, M.A. and Arias, M. (2005). A re-evaluation of the geographical distribution of quarantine nematodes reported in Spain. Nematologia Mediterranea 33: 209–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergdahl, D.R. and Halik, S. (1999). Inoculated Pinus sylvestris serve as long-term hosts for Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. In Sustainability of Pine Forests in Relation to Pine Wilt and Decline. Proceedings of an International Symposium, Tokyo, Japan, 26–30 October 1998 (eds. K. Futai, K. Togashi and T. Ikeda), pp. 73–78. Shokado Shote, Kyoto, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolla, R.I. and Jordan, W. (1982). Cultivation of pine wilt nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, in axenic culture media. Journal of Nematology 14: 377–381.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bolla, R.I., Weaver, C., Koslowski, P., Fitzsimmons, K. and Winter, R.E.K. (1987). Characterization of a nonparasitic isolate of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Journal of Nematology 19: 304–310.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bolla, R.I., Winter, R.E.K., Fitzsimmons, K. and Linit, M.J. (1986). Pathotypes of the pinewood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Journal of Nematology 18: 230–238.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bongers, T., Esquivel, A. and Arias, H. (2003). Preliminary results of the Costa Rican nematode inventory. Journal of Nematode Morphology and Systematics 6: 91–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braasch, H. (2000). Influence of temperature and water supply on mortality of 3-year-old pines inoculated with Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and B. mucronatus. Nachrichtenblatt des Deutschen Pflanzenschutzdienstes 52: 244–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braasch, H. (2004). Morphology of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus compared with other Bursaphelenchus species. In The pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Nematology Monographs and Perspectives, vol. 1 (eds. M. Mota and P. Vieira), pp. 127–143. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braasch, H., Burgermeister, W. and Pastrik, K.H. (1995). Differentiation of three Bursaphelenchus species by means of RAPD-PCR. Nachrichtenblatt des Deutschen Pflanzenschutzdienstes 47: 310–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braasch, H. and Enzian, S. (2004). The pine wood nematode problem in Europe – present situation and outlook. In The pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Nematology Monographs and Perspectives, vol. 1 (eds. M. Mota and P. Vieira), pp. 77–91. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braasch, H., Metge, K. and Burgermeister, W. (1999a). Bursaphelenchus species (Nematoda, Parasitaphelenchidae) found in coniferous trees in Germany and their ITS-RFLP patterns. Nachrichtenblatt des Deutschen Pflanzenschutzdienstes 51: 312–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braasch, H., Caroppo, S., Ambrogioni, L., Michalopoulos, H., Skarmoutsos, G. and Tomiczek, C. (1999b). Pathogenicity of various Bursaphelenchus species to pines and implications to European forests. In The pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Nematology Monographs and Perspectives, vol. 1 (eds. M. Mota and P. Vieira), pp. 57–64. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw, W.E. and Holzapfel, C.M. (2006). Climate change – Evolutionary response to rapid climate change. Science 312: 1477–1478.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brasier, C.M. (2001). Rapid evolution of introduced plant pathogens via interspecific hybridization. Bioscience 51: 123–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caroppo, S., Cavalli, M., Coniglio, D. and Ambrogioni, L. (2000). Pathogenicity studies with various Bursaphelenchus populations on conifer seedlings under controlled and open air conditions. Redia 83: 61–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dark, S.J. (2004). The biogeography of invasive alien plants in California: an application of GIS and spatial regression analysis. Diversity and Distributions 10: 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drake, J.A. (2006). The ecology of non-native invasive plant species: are there consistent patterns? CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources 1: 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • EPPO (2003). National regulatory and control systems. Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and its vectors: procedures for official control. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 33: 301–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, H.F., McNamara, D.G., Braasch, H., Chadoeuf, J. and Magnusson, C. (1996). Pest risk analysis (PRA) for the territories of the European Union (as PRA area) on Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and its vectors in the genus Monochamus. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 26: 199–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eyualem, A. and Blaxter, M. (2003). Comparison of biological, molecular, and morphological methods of species identification in a set of cultured Panagrolaimus isolates. Journal of Nematology 35: 119–128.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Franco, J., Oros, R., Main, G. and Ortuno, N. (1998). Potato cyst nematodes (Globodera species) in South America. In Potato Cyst Nematodes, Biology, Distribution and Control (eds. R.J. Marks and B.B. Brodie), pp. 239–269. CAB, Wallingford UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franks, S.J., Sim, S. and Weis, A.E. (2007). Rapid evolution of flowering time by an annual plant in response to a climate fluctuation. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science 104: 1278–1282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fujioka, H. (1993). A report on the habitat of Monochamus alternatus Hope in Akita Prefecture. Bulletin of the Akita Forest Technology Centre 2: 40–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furuno, T., Nakai, I., Uenaka, K. and Kaya, H. (1993). Pine Wilt on exotic species introduced in Kamaigamo and Shirahama Experimental Stations of Kyoto University: variation in resistance within the genus Pinus to Pine Wilt Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Steiner & Buhrer). Reports of the Kyoto University Forest 51: 23–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giblin-Davis, R.M. (1993). Interactions of nematodes with insects. In Nematode Interactions (ed. W.M. Khan), pp. 302–344. Chapman & Hall, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giblin-Davis, R.M., Davies, K.A., Morris, K. and Thomas, W.K. (2003). Evolution of parasitism in insect-transmitted plant nematodes. Journal of Nematology 35: 133–141.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gigerenzer, G. (2002). Reckoning with risk. Penguin, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Han, Z., Hong, Y., Cao, Y. and Zhao, B. (2006). Pathogenicity of bacteria carried by the pine wood nematode. In Proceedings of the symposium Pine Wilt Disease: a worldwide threat to forest ecosystems (eds. W. Burgermeister, K. Futai, M. Linit, M. Mota, P., Vieira and J. Webster). Lisbon, Portugal (http://www.nemalab.uevora.pt/).

    Google Scholar 

  • Han, Z.M., Hong, Y.D. and Zhao, B.G. (2003). A study on pathogenicity of bacteria carried by pine wood nematodes. Journal of Phytopathology 151: 683–689.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hockland, S., Inserra, R.N., Millar, L. and Lehman, P.S. (2006). International plant health – putting legislation into practice. In Plant Nematology (eds. R.N. Perry and M. Moens), pp. 327–345. CABI, Wallingford UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodda, M. (2003). A comprehensive checklist of the nematode Order Aphelenchida. http://www.ento.csiro.au/science/nematodes/checklist_dec2003.rtf.RefTarget TargetType="URL" Address="http://www.ento.csiro.au/science/nematodes/checklist_dec2003.rtf."/

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodda, M. (2006). Diagnostic Protocol: Pine Wilt Nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus). Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Canberra, 38 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodda, M. (2009). Ptychaphelenchus eucalypticola gen. nov., sp. nov. (Nematoda: Aphelenchida: Aphelenchoidoididae) from wood and bark of Eucalyptus macrorhyncha in Australia, with a key to genera of Aphelenchoididae and Parasitaphelenchidae. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 132: in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodda, M. and Falez, E. (2008). Effects of fire on bark and wood dwelling nematodes and their insect associates in native forests of the Australian Capital Territory. Journal of Wildland Fire (submitted).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, D.J. (1986). Extraction of nematodes from plant material. In Laboratory Methods for Work with Plant and Soil Nematodes (ed. J.F. Southey), pp. 51–58. HMSO, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyer, U., Burgermeister, W. and Braasch, H. (1998). Identification of Bursaphelenchus species (Nematoda, Aphelenchoididae) on the basis of amplified ribosomal DNA (ITS-RFLP). Nachrichtenblatt des Deutschen Pflanzenschutzdienstes 50: 273–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, D.J. (1993). Aphelenchida, Longidoridae and Trichodoridae: Their Systematics and Bionomics. CAB International, Wallingford UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ido, N. and Kobayashi, K. (1977). Dispersal of Monochamus alternatus. In Studies on the control of pine wilt disease, pp. 87–88. Secretariat of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Research Council, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Tokyo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, J.T., Furlanetto, C. and Kikuchi, T. (2005). Horizontal gene transfer from bacteria and fungi as a driving force in the evolution of plant parasitism in nematodes. Nematology 7: 641–646.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaneko, S. (1989). Effect of light-intensity on the development of pine wilt disease. Canadian Journal of Botany 67: 1861–1864.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanzaki, N. and Futai, K. (2006). Is Bursaphelenchus mucronatus a weak pathogen to the Japanese red pine? Nematology 8: 485–489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kawaguchi, E., Gyokusen, K. and Saito, A. (1999). Behaviour of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and the development of pine wilt disease under shaded condition. In Sustainability of Pine Forests in Relation to Pine Wilt and Decline. Proceedings of an International Symposium, Tokyo, Japan, 26–30 October 1998 (eds. K. Futai, K. Togashi and T. Ikeda), pp. 39–41. Shokado Shote, Kyoto, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kikuchi, T., Aikawa, T., Kosaka, H., Pritchard, L., Ogura, N. and Jones, J.T. (2007). EST analysis of the pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and B. mucronatus. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 155: 9–17.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kikuchi, T., Jones, J.T., Aikawa, T., Kosaka, H. and Ogura, N. (2004). A family of GHF45 cellulases from the pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. FEBS Letters 572: 201–205.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kikuchi, T., Shibuya, H., Aikawa, T. and Jones, J.T. (2006). Cloning and characterization of pectate lyases secreted by the pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 19: 280–287.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kikuchi, T., Shibuya, H. and Jones, J.T. (2005). Molecular and biochemical characterization of an Endo-β-1,3-glucanase from the pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Biochemical Journal 389: 117–125.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kiyohara, T. and Bolla, R.I. (1990). Pathogenic variability among populations of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Forest Science 36: 1061–1076.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kobayashi, F., Yamane, A. and Ikeda, T. (1984). The Japanese pine sawyer beetle as the vector of pine wilt disease. Annual Review of Entomology 29: 115–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohn, L.M. (2004). Applying comparative genomics to plant disease epidemiology. Phytoprotection 85: 45–48.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kolar, C.S. and Lodge, D.M. (2001). Progress in invasion biology: predicting invaders. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16: 199–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kruglik, I.A. (2001). The pathogenicity of Far Eastern isolate of Bursaphelenchus mucronatus. Vestnik Dal’nevostochnogo Otdeleniya Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk 1 95: 72–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kulinich, O. (2004). Surveys for the pine wood nematode in Russia. In The Pine Wood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Nematology Monographs and Perspectives, vol. 1 (eds. M. Mota and P. Vieira), pp. 65–75. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lehman, P.F. (2004). Cost-benefits of nematode management through regulatory programs. In Nematology: Advances and Perspectives, vol. 2: Nematode Management and Utilization (eds. Z.X. Chen, S.Y. Chen and D.W. Dickson), pp. 1133–1177. CABI, Wallingford UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieutier, F. and Vallet, E. (1982). Observations sur les nematodes parasites et associes aux principaux Scolytidae ravageurs du pin sylvestre en forets d’Orleans et de Sologne. Acta Oecologica, Oecologica Applicata 3: 131–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linit, M.J., Kondo, E. and Smith, M.T. (1983). Insects associated with the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae), in Missouri. Environmental Entomology 12: 467–470.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mack, R.N., Simberloff, D., Lonsdale, W.M., Evans, H., Clout, M. and Bazzaz, F.A. (2000). Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences, and control. Ecological Applications 10: 689–710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacLeod, R., Reay, F. and Smyth, J. (1994). Plant Nematodes of Australia Listed by Plant and by Genus. NSW Agriculture, Sydney.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mamiya, Y. (1984). The Pine Wood Nematode. In Plant & Insect Nematodes (ed. W.R. Nickle), pp. 589–626. Marcel Dekker, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mamiya, Y. (1988). History of pine wilt disease in Japan. Journal of Nematology 20: 219–226.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mamiya, Y. (1999). Review on the pathogenicity of Bursaphelenchus mucronatus. In Sustainability of Pine Forests in Relation to Pine Wilt and Decline. Proceedings of an International Symposium, Tokyo, Japan, 26–30 October 1998 (eds. K. Futai, K. Togashi and T. Ikeda), pp. 57–64. Shokado Shote, Kyoto, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mamiya, Y. (2004). Pine wilt disease in Japan. In The Pine Wood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Nematology Monographs and Perspectives, vol. 1 (eds. M. Mota and P. Vieira), pp. 9–20. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manion, P.D. (1981). Tree disease concepts. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marchetti, M.P., Moyle, P.B. and Levine, R. (2004). Invasive species profiling? Exploring the characteristics of non-native fishes across invasion stages in California. Freshwater Biology 49: 646–661.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, J.W. (1998). Potato cyst nematodes (Globodera species) in New Zealand and Australia. In Potato Cyst Nematodes, Biology, Distribution and Control (eds. R.J. Marks and B.B. Brodie), pp. 353–394. CAB, Wallingford UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNamara, D.G. (2004). Quarantine concerns about the methods used to demonstrate pathogenicity of Bursaphelenchus spp. In The pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Nematology Monographs and Perspectives, vol. 1 (eds. M. Mota and P. Vieira), pp. 187–189. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNamara, D.G. and Smith, I.M. (1998). National control measures for Globodera spp. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 28: 503–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos, H., Skarmoutsos, G., Kalapanida, M. and Karageorgos, A. (2004). Surveying and recording of nematodes of the genus Bursaphelenchus in conifer forests in Greece and pathogenicity of the most important species. In The Pine Wood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Nematology Monographs and Perspectives, vol. 1 (eds. M. Mota and P. Vieira), pp. 113–126. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mota, M., Takemoto, S., Takeuchi, Y., Hara, N. and Futai, K. (2006). Comparative studies between Portuguese and Japanese isolates of the pinewood nematode. Journal of Nematology 38: 429–433.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mullerova, J., Pysek, P. and Jarosik, V. (2005). Aerial photographs as a tool for assessing the regional dynamics of the invasive plant species Heracleum mantegazzianum. Journal of Applied Ecology 42: 1042–1053.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nickle, W.R. (1970). A taxonomic review of the genera of the Aphelenchoidea (Fuchs, 1937) Thorne, 1949 (Nematoda: Tylenchida). Journal of Nematology 4: 375–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nickle, W.R. (1992). Manual of Agricultural Nematology. Marcel Dekker, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nilsen, E.T. and Orcutt, D.M. (1996). Physiology of plants under stress. Abiotic factors. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oku, H. (1988). Role of phytotoxins in pine wilt disease. Journal of Nematology 20: 245–251.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oku, H. (1990). Phytotoxins in pine wilt disease. Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi-Journal of the Japan Society for Bioscience Biotechnology and Agrochemistry 64: 1254–1257.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orcutt, D.M. and Nilsen, E.T. (2000). The Physiology of Plants Under Stress: Soil and Biotic Factors. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, M., Gavran, M. and Davidson, J. (2006). Australia’s plantations 2006. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry, Canberra.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrings, C., Williamson, M. and Dalmazzone, S. (2000). Introduction. In The Economics of Biological Invasions (eds. C. Perrings, M. Williamson and S. Dalmazzone), pp. 1–13. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham & Northampton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powers, T.O. (2004). Nematode molecular diagnostics: from bands to barcodes. Annual Review of Phytopathology 42: 367–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Queneherve, P. and van den Berg, E. (2005). List of the phytoparasitic nematodes (Tylenchida and Dorylaimida) of the French overseas departments (Guadeloupe, Martinique and Guyana) and regulatory considerations. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 35: 519–530.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rejmanek, M. and Randall, J.M. (2004). The total number of naturalized species can be a reliable predictor of the number of alien pest species. Diversity and Distributions 10: 367–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ridley, G., Bain, J. and Dick, M. (2001). Exotic nematode found in pine trees in Melbourne, Victoria. New Zealand Journal of Forestry 46: 41–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Trelles, F. and Rodriguez, M.A. (1998). Rapid micro-evolution and loss of chromosomal diversity in Drosophila in response to climate warming. Evolutionary Ecology 12: 829–838.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutherford, T.A., Mamiya, Y. and Webster, J.M. (1990). Nematode-induced pine wilt disease: factors influencing its occurrence and distribution. Forest Science 36: 145–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutherford, T.A. and Webster, J. (1986). Distribution of pine wilt disease with respect to temperature in North America, Japan, and Europe. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 17: 1050–1059.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryss, A., Vieira, P., Mota, M. and Kulinich, O. (2005). A synopsis of the genus Bursaphelenchus Fuchs, 1937 (Aphelenchida: Parasitaphelenchidae) with keys to species. Nematology 7: 393–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sato, H., Sakuyama, T. and Kobayashi, M. (1987). Transmission of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Steiner et Buhrer) Nickle (Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae) by Monochamus saltuarius (Gebler) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society 69: 492–496.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skarmoutsos, G. and Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos, H. (2000). Pathogenicity of Bursaphelenchus sexdentati, Bursaphelenchus leoni and Bursaphelenchus hellenicus on European pine seedlings. Forest Pathology 30: 149–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D.I., Hodda M., Smith I.W., Nambiar L. and Pascoe I.G. (2007). Bursaphelenchus hunanensis on Pinus species in Victoria, Australia. Australasian Plant Pathology 37: 308–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R.H. (1971). Red turpentine beetle. US Department of Agriculture Forest Pest Leaflet 55: 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stohlgren, T.J. and Schnase, J.L. (2006). Risk analysis for biological hazards: what we need to know about invasive species. Risk Analysis 26: 163–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, C. (1990). Parasitic and phoretic nematodes associated with Ips grandicollis (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) in New South Wales, Australia. Nematologica 36: 478–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, C. and Simpson, J.A. (1990). Species associations in Ips grandicollis galleries in Pinus taeda. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science 20: 75–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, C. and Simpson, J.A. (1991). Effect of six chemicals on the insects, mites, nematodes and fungi associated with Ips grandi““collis (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) in northeastern New South Wales. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society 30: 21–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sturhan, D. (1996). On the significance of traditional taxonomy and the importance of the pp. pp. German Nematode Collection”. Mitteilungen aus der Biologischen Bundesanstalt fur Land- und Forstwirtschaft Berlin-Dahlem 317: 66–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takasu, F., Yamamoto, N., Kawasaki, K., Togashi, K. and Shigesada, N. (2000). Modelling the expansion of an introduced tree disease. Biological Invasions 2: 141–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, K. (1975). The effect of sulphur dioxide on the development of pine wilt disease caused by Bursaphelenchus lignicolus. Transactions for the Meeting of Japanese Forestry Society 86: 287–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Togashi, K. (1985). Transmission curves of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae) from its vector, Monochamus alternatus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), to pine trees with reference to population performance. Applied Entomology and Zoology 20: 246–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Togashi, K., Chung, Y. and Shibata, J. (2004). Spread of an introduced tree pest organism—the pinewood nematode. In Ecological Issues in a Changing World-Status, Response and Strategy (eds. S.K. Hong, J.A. Lee, B.S. Ihm, A. Farina, Y. Son, E.S. Kim and J.C. Choe), pp. 173–188. Kluwer, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Togashi, K. and Shigesada, N. (2006). Spread of the pinewood nematode vectored by the Japanese pine sawyer: modelling and analytical approaches. Population Ecology 48: 271–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Umina, P.A., Weeks, A.R., Kearney, M.R., McKechnie, S.W. and Hoffmann, A.A. (2005). A rapid shift in a classic clinal pattern in Drosophila reflecting climate change. Science 308: 691–693.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vitousek, P.M., D’Antonio, C.M., Loope, L.L. and Westbrooks, R. (1996). Biological invasions as global environmental change. American Scientist 84: 468–478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, R.N. (2004). Internal biosecurity – a realistic objective for plant nematodes? New Zealand Plant Protection 57: 151–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster, J.M. (1999). Pine Wilt Disease: a worldwide survey. In Sustainability of Pine Forests in Relation to Pine Wilt and Decline. Proceedings of an International Symposium, Tokyo, Japan, 26–30 October 1998 (eds. K. Futai, K. Togashi and T. Ikeda), pp. 254–260. Shokado Shote, Kyoto, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster, J.M. (2004). The pine wood nematode: implications of factors past and present for pine wilt disease. In The Pine Wood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Nematology Monographs and Perspectives, vol. 1 (eds. M. Mota and P. Vieira), pp. 55–64. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead, A.G. and Turner, S.J. (1998). Management and regulatory control strategies for potato cyst nematodes (Globodera rostochiensis and Globodera pallida). In Potato Cyst Nematodes, Biology, Distribution and Control (eds. R.J. Marks and B.B. Brodie), pp. 135–152. CAB, Wallingford UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, M. (1996). Biological Invasions. Chapman & Hall, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, M. and Fitter, A. (1996). The varying success of invaders. Ecology 77: 1661–1666.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wingfield, M.J. (1987). Pathogenicity of the pine wood nematode. APS Press, St Paul MN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wingfield, M.J. and Blanchette, R.A. (1983). The pine-wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, in Minnesota and Wisconsin: insect associates and transmission studies. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 13: 1068–1076.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yan, Z.L., Sun, J.H., Don, O. and Zhang, Z. (2005). The red turpentine beetle, Dendroctonus valens LeConte (Scolytidae): an exotic invasive pest of pine in China. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 1735–1760.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, B. (2004). The history, dispersal and potential threat of pine wilt nematode in China. In The Pine Wood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Nematology Monographs and Perspectives, vol. 1 (eds. M. Mota and P. Vieira), pp. 21–24. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yin, K., Fang, Y. and Tarjan, A.C. (1988). A key to species in the genus Bursaphelenchus with a description of Bursaphelenchus hunanensis sp. n. (Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae) found in pinewood in Hunan Province, China. Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington 55: 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoshimura, A., Kawasaki, K., Takasu, F., Togashi, K., Futai, K. and Shigesada, N. (1999). Modelling the spread of pine wilt disease caused by nematodes with pine sawyers as vector. Ecology 80: 1691–1702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, L.Y., Chen, Q.C. and Zhang, X.B. (2002). Studies on the morphological characters and bionomics of Dendroctonus valens LeConte. Scientia Silvae Sinicae 38: 95–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, B.G., Wang, H.L. and Han, S.F. (2003). Distribution and pathogenicity of bacteria species carried by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus in China. Nematology 5: 899–906.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, Z.Q., Davies, K.A., Riley, I.T. and Nobbs, J.M. (2006a). Laimaphelenchus australis sp nov (Nematoda: Aphelenchina) from exotic pines, Pinus radiata and P. pinaster, in Australia. Zootaxa 1248: 35–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, Z.Q., Davies, K.A., Riley, I.T. and Nobbs, J.M. (2006b). Laimaphelenchus preissii sp nov (Nematoda: Aphelenchina) from native pine Callitris preissii in South Australia. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 130: 10–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, Z.Q., Davies, K.A., Riley, I.T. and Nobbs, J.M. (2007). Laimaphelenchus heidelbergi sp. nov. (Nematoda: Aphelenchina) from Victoria, Australia, and emendment of the diagnosis of the genus. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 131: 182–191.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. CSIRO Entomology, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia

    Mike Hodda

Authors
  1. Mike Hodda
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ian Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Lila Nambiar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ian Pascoe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. ICAM – Universidade de Évora, Portugal

    Manuel M. Mota  & Paulo Vieira  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hodda, M., Smith, D., Smith, I., Nambiar, L., Pascoe, I. (2008). Incursion Management in the Face of Multiple Uncertainties: A Case Study of an Unidentified Nematode Associated with Dying Pines Near Melbourne, Australia. In: Mota, M.M., Vieira, P. (eds) Pine Wilt Disease: A Worldwide Threat to Forest Ecosystems. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8455-3_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation