In this chapter, you will learn about:
-
1.
Why genetic concerns are central to the study of conservation biology
-
2.
How to measure the genetic attributes of individuals and populations
-
3.
Why inbreeding can pose threats to population persistence
-
4.
The roles of hybridization and introgression in conserving biodiversity
Conservation biology is a science concerned with the fate of populations, which are defined and identified by their genetic constituency. This unique genetic makeup not only distinguishes them from other populations, but also determines their capacity to adapt to changing conditions and, potentially, to produce new species. Many conservationists would argue that the conservation of genetic diversity is the foundational basis of all conservation efforts because genetic diversity is requisite for evolutionary adaptation, and such adaptation is the key to the long-term survival of any species (Schemske et al. 1994). To assure such survival, conservation biologists have two primary goals in the area of genetics. One is to preserve significant amounts of heritable genetic variation, particularly in small populations threatened with extinction. The other is to prevent the fixation of deleterious alleles, a fixation that can contribute to reduced fitness and accumulation of harmful mutations (Lynch 1996). Preserving high levels of heritable variation helps to retain a population’s current reproductive fitness and maintain its evolutionary potential, its capacity to adapt to environmental change over the long term. Preventing the fixation of deleterious alleles is intended to prevent declines in survivorship and fecundity that often occur in small populations as a result of reduced genetic diversity. Thus, the two goals are intimately related, and the overall aim and application of conservation genetics is to preserve species not simply as static forms, but as dynamic entities capable of responding to and coping with environmental change through time. Only when species possess this kind of adaptive potential do they have a reasonable expectation of persistence in a changing world, and only through maintaining their genetic diversity can they hope to possess this potential.
To achieve these goals, conservation genetics today encompasses three categories of activities: (1) genetic management of small populations to maximize the retention of genetic diversity and minimize inbreeding, (2) resolution of taxonomic uncertainties and delineation of management units based on genetic characteristics of populations, and (3) use of genetic analyses in forensics, especially in the enforcement of conservation laws and treaties, and in understanding the biology of target species. We will examine each category in detail in this and the next chapter to understand and appreciate the significance of the kinds of approaches and techniques that can be used in each of these categories. In this chapter, we will develop a conceptual understanding of conservation genetics, including its history, development, and theoretical framework. In the following chapter (Chapter 7), we will address more specific applications of genetic knowledge, skills, and techniques in actual conservation management. We begin with an overview of the foundations of conservation genetics.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Andrewartha, H. G., and L. C. Birch. 1954. The distribution and abundance of animals. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
Bangert, R. K., R. J. Turek, G. D. Martinsen, G. M. Wimp, J. K. Bailey, and T. G. Whitam. 2005. Benefits of conservation of plant genetic diversity to arthropod diversity. Conservation Biology 19:379–390
Berry, R. J. 1971. Conservation aspects of the genetical constitution of populations. In: E. Duffy and A. S. Watt (eds) The scientific management of animal and plant communities for conservation. Blackwell, Oxford, England, pp 177–206
Boriase, S. C., D. A. Loebel, R. Frankham, R. K. Nurthen, and D. A. Briscoe. 1993. Modeling problems in conservation genetics using captive Drosophila populations: consequences of equalization of family sizes. Conservation Biology 7:122–131
Briton, J., R. K. Nurthen, D. A. Briscoe, and R. Frankham. 1994. Modeling problems in conservation genetics using Drosophila: consequences of harems. Biological Conservation 69:267–275
Carney, S. E., D. E. Wolf, and L. H. Rieseberg. 2000. Hybridization and forest conservation. In: A. Young, D. Boshier, and T. Boyle (eds) Forest conservation genetics: principles and practice. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria, Australia, pp 167–182
Caughley, G. 1994. Directions in conservation biology. Journal of Animal Ecology 63:215–244
Chesser, R. K., O. E. Rhodes Jr., and M. H. Smith. 1996. Gene conservation. In: Rhodes, O. E. Jr., R. K. Chesser, and M. H. Smith (eds) Population dynamics in ecological space and time. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp 237–252
den Boer, P. J. 1968. Spreading of risk and stabilization of animal numbers. Acta Biotheoretica 18:165–194
Ezzell, C. 1991. Conserving a coyote in wolf’s clothing? Science News 139:374–375
Fisher, R. A. 1958. The genetical theory of natural selection. Dover Publications, Toronto, Canada
Frankel, O.H., and M.E. Soulé. 1981. Conservation and evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Frankham, R. 1980. The founder effect and response to artificial selection in Drosophila. In: A. Robertson (ed) Selection experiments in laboratory and domestic animals. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, Farnham Royal, Australia, pp 87–90
Frankham, R. 1995a. Conservation genetics. Annual Review of Genetics 29:305–327
Frankham, R. 1995b. Inbreeding and extinction: a threshold effect. Conservation Biology 9:792–799
Frankham, R. 2005. Stress and adaptation in conservation genetics. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 18:750–755
Frankham, R., J. D. Ballou, and D. A. Briscoe. 2002. Introduction to conservation genetics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Franklin, I. R. 1980. Evolutionary change in small populations. In: M. E. Soulé and B. A. Wilcox (eds) Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA, pp 135–149
Fredrickson, R. J., and P. W. Hedrick. 2006. Dynamics of hybridization and introgression in red wolves and coyotes. Conservation Biology 20:1272–1283
Grant, V. 1971. Plant speciation. Columbia University Press, New York
Grant, V., and K. A. Grant. 1965. Flower pollination in the phlox family. Columbia University Press, New York
Groom, M. J. 1998. Allee effects limit population viability of an annual plant. American Naturalist 151:487–496
Groombridge, J. J., C. G. Jones, M. W. Bruford, and R. A. Nichols. 2000. ‘Ghost’ alleles of the Mauritius kestrel. Nature 403:616
Hamrick, J. L., and M. J. W. Godt. 1989. Allozyme diversity in plant species. In: A. H. D. Brown, M. T. Clegg, A. L. Kahler, and B. S. Weir (eds) Plant population genetics, breeding, and genetic resources. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA, pp 43–63
Hamrick, J. L., and J. D. Nason. 1996. Consequences of dispersal in plants. In: Rhodes, Olin E. Jr., Ronald K. Chesser, and Michael H. Smith (eds) Population dynamics in ecological space and time. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp 203–236
Hanski, I., and D. Simberloff. 1997. The metapopulation approach, its history, conceptual domain, and application to conservation. In: I. Hanski and M. E. Gilpin (eds) Metapopulation biology: ecology, genetics, and evolution. Academic, San Diego, CA, pp 5–26
Hedrick, P. W., 1995. Gene flow and genetic restoration: the Florida panther as a case study. Conservation Biology 9:996–1007
Hedrick, P. W., and S. T. Kalinowski. 2000. Inbreeding depression in conservation biology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31:139–162
Hill, R., and C. Sendashonga. 2006. Conservation biology, genetically modified organisms, and the biosafety protocol. Conservation Biology 20:1620–1625
Holsinger, K. E., R. J. Mason-Gamer, and J. Whitton. 1999. Genes, demes, and plant conservation. In: L. F. Landweber and A. P. Dobson (eds) Genetics and the extinction of species: DNA and the conservation of biodiversity. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, pp 23–46
Hooper, M. D. 1971. The size and surroundings of nature reserves. In: E. Duffy and A. S. Watt (eds) The scientific management of animal and plant communities for conservation. Blackwell, Oxford, England, pp 555–561
Jiménez, J. A., K. A. Hughes, G. Alaks, L. Graham, and R. C. Lacy. 1994. An experimental study of inbreeding depression in a natural habitat. Science 266:271–273
Keller, L. F., P. Arcese, J. N. M. Smith, W. M. Hochachka, and S. C. Stearns. 1994. Selection against inbred song sparrows during a natural population bottleneck. Nature 372:356–357
Land, D., M. Lotz, D. Shindle, and S. K. Taylor. 1999. Florida panther genetic restoration and management: annual performance report. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Naples, FL
Lande, R. 1988. Genetics and demography in biological conservation. Science 241:1455–1460
Latter, B. D. H., J. C. Mulley, D. Reid, and L. Pascoe. 1995. Reduced genetic load revealed by slow inbreeding in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 139:287–297
Levins, R. 1968. Evolution in changing environments: some theoretical explorations. Monograph in Population Biology, Number 2. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
Levins, R. 1969. Some demographic and genetic consequences of environmental heterogeneity for biological control. Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America 15:2337–2340
Levins, R. 1970. Extinction. In: M. Gesternhaber (ed) Some mathematical problems in biology. American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI, pp 77–107
Lewis, W. H. 1980. Polyploidy: biological relevance. Plenum, New York
Loew, S. S. 2002. Role of genetics in conservation biology. In: S. Ferson and M. Burgman (eds) Quantitative methods for conservation biology. Springer, New York, pp 226–258
Losey, J. E., L. S. Raynor, and M. E. Carter. 1999. Transgenic pollen harms monarch larvae. Nature 399:214
Louis, E. E. Jr., J. H. Ratsimbazafy, V. R. Razakamaharauo, D. J. Pierson, R. C. Barber, and R. A. Brenneman. 2005. Conservation genetics of black and white ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata, from southeastern Madagascar. Animal Conservation 8:105–111
Lynch, M. 1996. A quantitative genetic perspective on conservation issues. In J. C. Avise and J. L. Hamrick (eds) Conservation genetics: case histories from nature. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp 471–501
Madsen, T., R. Shine, M. Olsson, and H. Wittsell. 1999. Resto-ration of an inbred adder population. Nature 402:34–35
Mills, L. S., and P. E. Smouse. 1994. Demographic consequences of inbreeding in remnant populations. American Naturalist 144:412–431
Moore, N. W. 1962. The heaths of Dorset and their conservation. Journal of Ecology 50:369–391
Nei, M. 1972. Genetic distance between populations. American Naturalist 106:283–292
Novak, R. M. 1999. Red wolf Canis rufus. In: D. E. Wilson and S. Ruff (eds) The Smithsonian book of North American mammals. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp 143–146
O’Brien, S. J., D. E. Wildt, D. Goldman, C. R. Merril, and M. Bush. 1983. The cheetah is depauperate in genetic variation. Science 221:459–462
O’Brien, S. J., M. E. Roelke, L. Marker, A. Newman, C. A. Winkler, D. Meltzer, L. Colly, J. F. Evermann, M. Bush, and D. E. Wildt. 1985. Genetic basis for species vulnerability in the cheetah. Science 227:1428–1434
O’Brien, S. J., M. E. Roelke, N. Yuhki, K. W Richards, W. E. Johnson, W. L. Franklin, A. E. Anderson, O. L. Bass Jr., R. C. Belden, and J. S. Martenson. 1990. Genetic introgression within the Florida panther Felis concolor coryi. National Geographic Research 6:485–494
O’Brien, S. J. et al. 1996. Conservation genetics of the felidae. In: J. C. Avise and J. L. Hamrick (eds) Conservation genetics: case histories from nature. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp 50–74
Packer, C, A. E. Pusey, H. Rowley, D. A. Gilbert, J. Martenson, and S. J. O’Brien. 1991. Case study of a bottleneck: lions of the Ngorongoro Crater. Conservation Biology 5:219–203
Pannell, J. R., and B. Charlesworth. 1999. Neutral genetic diversity in a metapopulation with recurrent local extinction and recolonization. Evolution 53:664–676
Parker, I. M., R. P. Nakumura, and D. W. Schemske. 1995. Reproductive allocation and the fitness consequences of selfing in two sympatric species of Epilobium (Onagraceae) with contrasting mating systems. American Journal of Botany 82(8):1007–1016
Pico, F. X., N. J. Ouborg, and J. M. van Groenendael. 2004. Evaluation of the extent of among-family variation in inbreeding depression in the perennial herb Scabiosa columbaria (Dipsacaceae). American Journal of Botany 91:1183–1189
Ralls, K., and J. Ballou. 1983. Extinction: lessons from zoos. In: C. M. Schonewald-Cox, S. M. Chambers, B. MacBryde, and W. L. Thomas (eds) Genetics and conservation: a reference for managing wild animal and plant populations. Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, CA, pp 164–184
Ralls, K., K. Brugger, and J. Ballou. 1979. Inbreeding and juvenile mortality in small populations of ungulates. Science 206:1101–1103
Ralls, K., J. D. Ballou, and A. Templeton. 1988. Estimates of lethal equivalents and the cost of inbreeding in mammals. Conservation Biology 2:185–193
Raven, P. H. 1979. A survey of reproductive biology in the Onagraceae. New Zealand Journal of Botany 17:575–593
Reed, D. H., and R. Frankham. 2001. How closely correlated are molecular and quantitative measures of genetic diversity: a meta-analysis. Evolution 55:1095–1103
Reed, D. H., D. A. Briscoe, and R. Frankham. 2002. Inbreeding and extinction: effects of environmental stress and lineages. Conservation Genetics 3:301–307
Rhymer, J. A., and D. Simberloff. 1996. Extinction by hybridization and introgression. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 27:83–109
Roy, M. S., E. Geffen, D. Smith, E. Ostrander, and R. K. Wayne. 1994a. Patterns of differentiation and hybridization in North American wolf-like canids revealed by analysis of microsatellite loci. Molecular Biological Evolution 11:553–570
Roy, M. S., D. J. Girman, and R. K. Wayne. 1994b. The use of museum specimens to reconstruct the genetic variability and relationships of extinct populations. Experimentia 50:551–557
Saccheri, I., M. Kuussaari, M. Kankare, P. Vikman, W. Fortelius, and I. Hanski. 1998. Inbreeding and extinction in a butterfly metapopulation. Nature 392:491–494
Schemske, D. W., B. C. Husband, M. H. Ruckelshaus, C. Goodwillie, I. M. Parker, and J. G. Bishop. 1994. Evaluating approaches to the conservation of rare and endangered plants. Ecology 75:584–606
Sears, M. K., R. L. Hellmich, D. E. Stanley-Horn, K. S. Oberhauser, J. M. Pleasants, H. R. Matilla, B. D. Siegfried, and G. P. Dively. 2001. Impact of Bt corn pollen on monarch butterfly populations: a risk assessment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98:11937–11942
Shaffer, M. L. 1981. Minimum population sizes for species conservation. BioScience 31:131–134
Simberloff, D. 1988. The contribution of population and community biology to conservation science. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 19:473–571
Slatkin, M. 1977. Gene flow and genetic drift in a species subject to frequent local Extinction. Theoretical Population Biology 12:253–262
Soulé, M. 1973. The epistasis cycle: a theory of marginal populations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:165–187
Soulé, M, M. Gilpin, W. Conway, and T. Foose. 1986. The millenium ark: how long a voyage, how many staterooms, how many passengers? Zoo Biology 5:101–114
Stebbins, G. L. 1950. Variation and evolution in plants. Columbia University Press, New York
Stebbins, G. L. 1957. Self-fertilization and population variability in the higher plants. American Naturalist 91:337–354
Sullivan, R. M. 1996. Genetics, ecology, and conservation of montane populations of Colorado chipmunks (Tamias quadrivittatus). Journal of Mammalogy 77:951–975
Templeton, A. R. 1986. Coadaptation and outbreeding depression. In: M. E. Soulé (ed) Conservation biology: the science of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA, pp 105–116
Templeton, A. R., and B. Read. 1994. Inbreeding: one word, several meanings, much confusion. In: V. Leoschcke, J. Tomiuk, and S. K. Jain (eds) Conservation genetics. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, Switzerland, pp 91–105
Triggs, S. J., M. J. Williams, S. J. Marshall, and G. K. Chambers. 1992. Genetic structure of the blue duck (Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos) populations revealed by DNA fingerprinting. Auk 109:80–89
Van Dyke, F. 2002. Conservation biology: foundations, concepts, applications. McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA
Van Oosterhout, C. V., W. G. Zijlstra, M. K. Van Heuven, and P. M. Brakefield. 2000. Inbreeding depression and genetic load in laboratory metapopulations of the butterfly Bicyclus anynana. Evolution 54:218–225
Vida, G.1994. Global issues of genetic diversity. In: V. Leoschcke, J. Tomiuk, and S. K. Jain (eds) Conservation genetics. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, Switzerland, pp 9–19
Vrijenhoek, R. C.1994. Genetic diversity and fitness in small populations. In: V. Leoschcke, J. Tomiuk, and S. K. Jain (eds) Conservation genetics. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, Switzerland, pp 37–53
Wade, M. J. 1996. Adaptation in subdivided populations: kin selection and interdemic selection. In: M. R. Rose and G. V. Lauder (eds) Adaptation. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA, pp 381–405
Wade, M. J., and C. J. Goodnight. 1998. Perspective: the theories of Fisher and Wright in the context of metapopulations: when nature does many small experiments. Evolution 52:1537–1553
Wade, M. J., and D. E. McCauley. 1988. Extinction and recolonization: their effects on the genetic differentiation of local populations. Evolution 42:995–1005
Walter, H. S. 1990. Small viable population: the red-tailed hawk of Socorro Island. Conservation Biology 4:441–443
Wayne, R. K. 1996. Conservation genetics in the Canidae. In: J. C. Avise and J. L. Hamrick (eds) Conservation genetics: case histories from nature. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp 75–118
Wayne, R. K., and S. M. Jenks. 1991. Mitochondrial DNA analysis supports extensive hybridization of the endangered red wolf (Canis rufus). Nature 351:565–568
Whitham, T. G., G. D. Martinsen, K. D. Floate, H. S. Dungley, B. M. Potts, and P. Keim. 1999. Plant hybrid zones affect biodiversity: tools for a genetic-based understanding of community structure. Ecology 80:416–428
Woodworth, L. M., M. E. Montgomery, R. K. Nurthen, D. A. Briscoe, and R. Frankham. 1994. Modeling problems in conservation genetics using Drosophila: consequences of fluctuating population sizes. Molecular Ecology 3:393–399
Wright, S. 1931. Evolution and Mendelian populations. Genetics 16:97–159
Young, A. G., and A. H. D. Brown. 1999. Paternal bottlenecks in fragmented populations of the endangered grassland daisy Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides. Genetical Research 73:111–117
Zhang, Y., X. Wang, O. A. Ryder, H. Li, H. Zhang, Y. Yong, and P. Wang. 2002. Genetic diversity and conservation of endangered animal species. Pure and Applied Chemistry 74:575–584
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Springer Science + Business Media B.V
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
(2008). Genetic Diversity – Understanding Conservation at Genetic Levels. In: Conservation Biology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6891-1_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6891-1_6
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-6890-4
Online ISBN: 978-1-4020-6891-1
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)