Skip to main content

The Drivers of Fragmentation in Arid and Semi-Arid Landscapes

  • Chapter

The tone of Latimer’s preaching was both weary and impatient – “many meetings and sessions; but…there cometh nothing forth.” It might therefore amaze him to discover, four hundred and fifty years later and still counting, that he was observing a global process that continues to this day – the displacement of feudal or tribal systems of land holding to make way for exclusive tenure and commercial agriculture. In the 16th century, the Tudor English state was ambivalent about this novel process, afraid that enclosure would depopulate the countryside and sap the fighting strength of English armies relative to their continental rivals. But the authorities were either powerless or unwilling to halt commercial developments that they had helped to initiate and from which they profited (Tawney 1912).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Adams, F. and W. Werner. 1990. The land issue in Namibia: An enquiry. NISER, University of Namibia, Windhoek.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banks, T. 1999. State, community and common property in Xinjiang: synergy or strife? Development Policy Review 17:293-313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banks, T. 2001. Property rights and the environment in pastoral China: evidence from the field. Development and Change 32:717-740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banks, T., C. Richard, L. Ping and Y. Zhaoli. 2003. Community-based grassland management in western China. Mountain Research and Development 23:132-140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, K. 2005. Development and the enclosure movement in pastoral Tibet since the 1980s. Nomadic Peoples 9:53-82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Behnke, R.H. 1988. Range enclosure in Central Somalia. Pastoral Development Network, Paper 25b. Overseas Development Institute, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Behnke, R. 2003. Reconfiguring property rights and land use. Pages 75-107. In: C. Kerven, editor. Prospects for pastoralism in Kazakstan and Turkmenistan: From state farms to private flocks. RoutledgeCurzon, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Behnke, R., A. Jabbar, A. Budanov and G. Davidson. 2005. The administration and practice of leasehold pastoralism in Turkmenistan. Nomadic Peoples 9:147-170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bekure, S. and I. Ole Pasha. 1986. Response of the Kenyan Maasai to changing land policies. Paper presented at the Plains Indian Cultures: Past and Present Meanings, a symposium sponsored by the Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. (ILCA KE 631.585:333.013 SOL x. 3).

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, L. and I. Svanberg. 1998. China’s last nomads: The history and culture of China’s Kazaks. M.E. Skarpe, Inc., New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkes, F. 1996. Social systems, ecological systems, and property rights. Pages 87-107. In: S. Hanna, C. Folke, and K-G Maler, editors. Rights to nature: Ecological, economic, cultural, and political principles of institutions for the environment. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bollig, M. 2006. Risk management in a hazardous environment: A comparative study of two pastoral societies. Springer, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boserup, E. 1965. The conditions of agricultural growth: The economics of agrarian change under population pressure. Allen and Unwin, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D.J. 1993. Land as ours, land as mine: economic, political and ecological margina-lization in Kajiado District. Pages 258-272. In: T. Spear and R. Waller, editors. Being Maasai: Ethnicity and identity in East Africa. James Currey, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • CARL BRO International A/S. 1982. Livestock management and production in Botswana. Ministry of Agriculture, Gaborone, Botswana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christian, I. 1998. Grazing management study. Northern Regions Livestock Development Project, Windhoek, Namibia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cousins, B. 1989. Community, class and grazing management in Zimbabwe’s communal lands. In B. Cousins, editor. People, land and livestock: Proceedings of a workshop on the socio-economic dimensions of livestock production in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Belmont Press, Masvingo, Zimbabwe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cousins, B. 1992. Managing communal rangeland in Zimbabwe: Experiences and lessons. Commonwealth Secretariat, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, J. 1998. An assessment of fencing activity in east Oshikoto. In: J. Cox, C. Kerven, W. Werner, and R. Behnke, editors. The privatisation of rangeland resources in Namibia: Enclosure in Eastern Oshikoto. Overseas Development Institute, London. Daily News. 30 January, 2006. TGLP ranches rent up. Gaborone, Botswana. http://www.gov. bw/cgi-bin/news.cgi?d=20060130.

  • Darkoh, M.B.K. and J.E. Mbaiwa. 2002. Globalisation and the livestock industry in Botswana. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 23:149-166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Souza, M. and P. de Leeuw. 1984. Smallstock use of reserved grazing areas on Merueshi Group Ranch. ILCA, Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desta, S. and D. Coppock. 2004. Pastoralism under pressure: tracking system change in southern Ethiopia. Human Ecology 32:465-86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doornbos, M. and M. Lofchie. 1971. Ranching and scheming: a case study of the Ankole Ranching Scheme. Pages 165-187. In: M. Lofchie, editor. The state of the nations: Constraints on development in independent Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, J., K. Price, F. Yu, L. Christensen and M. Yu. 2002. Dimensions of desertification in the drylands of northern China. Pages 167-190. In: J. Reynolds and D. Stafford Smith, editors. Global desertification: Do humans cause deserts? Dahlem University Press, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ensminger, J. 1992. Making a market: The institutional transformation of an African society. CUP, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evangelou, P. 1984. Livestock development in Kenya’s Maasailand. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO. 2000a. FAOSTAT PopSTAT module. http://faostat.fao.org/site/452/default.aspx.

  • FAO. 2000b. FAOSTAT ResourceSTAT module. http://faostat.fao.org/site/405/default.aspx

  • Farringon, J. 2005. De-development in eastern Kyrgyzstan and persistence of semi-nomadic livestock herding. Nomadic Peoples 9:171-198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Gimenez, M. 2000. The role of Mongolian nomadic pastoralists’ ecological knowledge in rangeland management. Ecological Applications 10:1318-1326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Gimenez, M. and B. Batbuyan. 2000. Law and disorder in Mongolia: implementation of Mongolia’s land law. Paper presented at the IASCP Biennial conference ‘Constituting the Commons: Crafting Sustainable Commons in the New Millennium’, Indiana University, May 31-June 4, 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, B., S. Nghikembua, and T.F. Irving. 1996. The enclosure of range lands in the Eastern Oshikoto Region of Namibia. Research Report No. 24, Social Sciences Division, University of Namibia, Windhoek.

    Google Scholar 

  • GOB (Government of Botswana). 1991. New agricultural development policy. Government Printer, Gaborone, Botswana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldschmidt, W. 1981. The failure of pastoral economic development programs in Africa. Pages 101-118. In: J.G. Galaty, D. Aronson, P.C. Salzman and A. Chouinard, editors. The future of pastoral peoples: Proceedings of a conference held in Nairobi, Kenya, 4-8 August 1980. IDRC, Ottawa, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grandin, B.E. 1986. Land tenure, subdivision, and residential change on a Maasai group ranch. Development Anthropology Network 4:9-13. Institute of Development Anthropology, Binghamton, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grandin, B. 1987. Pastoral culture and range management: recent lessons from Maasailand. ILCA Bulletin 28: 7-13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hangartner, J. 2002. Dependant on snow and flour: Organisation of herding life and socio-economic strategies of Kyrgyz mobile pastoralists in Murghab, Eastern Pamir, Tajikistan. M.A. Thesis, University of Berne.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, C. and S.R. Lewis. 1990. Policy choice and development performance in Botswana. Macmillan Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedlund, H.G.B. 1971. The impact of group ranches on a pastoral society. University of Nairobi, Institute for Development Studies Staff Paper No. 100, Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herren, U. 1991. Socioeconomic strategies of pastoral Maasai households in Mukogodo Kenya. University of Bern, Bern.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hitchcock, R.K. 1978. Kalahari cattle posts: A regional study of hunter-gatherers, pastoralists, and agriculturalists in the Western Sandveld Region, Central District, Botswana, Volumes I and II. Ministry of Local Government and Lands, Gaborone, Botswana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hitchcock, R.K. 1985. Water, land, and livestock: the evolution of tenure and administration patterns in the grazing areas of Botswana. In L.A. Picard, editor. The evolution of modern Botswana: Politics and rural development in Southern Africa. Collins, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogg, R. 1986. The new pastoralism: poverty and dependency in Northern Kenya. Africa 56:519-555

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hogg, R. 1987. The politics of changing property rights among Isiolo Boran patoralists in northern Kenya. Pages 20-31. In: P.T.W. Baxter and R. Hogg, editors. Property, poverty and people: Changing rights in property and problems of pastoral development. Department of Anthropology, University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holm, J.D. 1985. The state, social class, and rural development in Botswana. In L.A. Picard, editor. The evolution of modern Botswana: Politics and rural development in southern Africa. Collins, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holme, D. and A. Kooiman. 1994. Mapping fences in Oshikoto Region, Namibia. Technical Notes 2, National Remote Sensing Centre, NRSC/Directorate of Forestry/Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek, Namibia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homewood, K.M. 1992. Development and the ecology of Maasai pastoralist food and nutrition. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 29:61-80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, M. 1986. Agricultural exports and economic growth: A study of Botswana’s beef industry. KPI, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isaksen, J. 1984. Some aspects of the cattle industry in the economy of Botswana. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift 38:85-94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jahnke, H., H. Ruthenberg and H. Thimm. 1974. Range development in Kenya: A review of commercial, company, individual and group ranches. IBRD, Africa Rural Development Study Background Paper, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jiang, H. 2002. Culture, ecology, and nature’s changing balance: sandification on Mu Us Sandy Land, Inner Mongolia, China. Pages 181-196. In: J. Reynolds and D. Stafford Smith, editors. Global desertification: Do humans cause deserts? Dahlem University Press, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamara, A.B. 2000. Ethiopian case study. Pages 396-426. In: N. McCarthy, B. Swallow, M. Kirk and P. Hazell, editors. Property rights, risk, and livestock development in Africa. IFPRI, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerven, C. 1998. The knife cuts on both blades: redefining property rights in Eastern Oshikoto. In J. Cox, C. Kerven, W. Werner and R. Behnke, editors. The privatisation of  rangeland resources in Namibia: Enclosure in Eastern Oshikoto. Overseas Development Institute, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerven, C., I.I. Alimaev, R. Behnke, G. Davidson, L. Franchois, N. Malmakov, E. Mathijs, A. Smailov, S. Temirbekov and I. Wright. 2003. Retraction and expansion of flock mobility in Central Asia: costs and consequences. Proceedings of the VII International Rangelands Congress, Durban, South Africa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimani, K. and J. Pickard. 1998. Recent trends and implications of group ranch sub-division and fragmentation in Kajiado District, Kenya. The Geographical Journal 164:202-213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kituyi, M. 1990. Becoming Kenyans: Socio-economic transformation of the pastoral Maasai. Acts Press, African Centre for Technology Studies, Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawry, S.W. 1988. Private herds and common land: Issues in the management of communal grazing land in Lesotho, Southern Africa. Doctoral dissertation at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesorogol, C. 2003. Transforming institutions among pastoralists: inequality and land privatization. American Anthropologist 105:531-542.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lesorogol, C. 2005. Privatizing pastoral lands: economic and normative outcomes in Kenya. World Development 33:1959-1978.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, P.D. 1992. The elusive granary: Herder, farmer, and state in northern Kenya. CUP, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Low, A. 1986. Agricultural development in Southern Africa: Farm household-economics and the food crisis. James Currey, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malcolm, D.W. 1953. Sukumaland: An African people and their country. OUP, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manners, R.A. 1964. Colonialism and native land tenure: a case study in ordained accommodation. In R.A. Manners, editor. Process and pattern in culture: Essays in honor of Julian H. Steward. Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, V. 2001. Law and custom in the steppe: the Kazakhs of the Middle Horde and Russian colonialism in the nineteenth century. Curzon Press, Richmond, Surrey, U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, P. and I. Mayer. 1965. Land law in the making. Pages 51-78. In: H. Kuper and L. Kuper, editors. African law: Adaptation and development. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, T. 1997. Risk and uncertainty among the Maasai of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania: a case study in economic change. Nomadic Peoples 1:54-65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGowan International & Coopers Lybrand. 1988. National Land Management and Livestock Project: Incentives/Disincentives Study, Volumes I, II, and II. Gaborone, Botswana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muwonge, J.W. 1978. Population growth and the enclosure movement in Ankole, Uganda. East African Journal of Rural Development 11:168-184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norton-Griffiths, M. and C. Southey. 1995. The opportunity costs of biodiversity conservation in Kenya. Ecological Economics 12:125-139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parson, J. 1981. Cattle, class and the state in rural Botswana. Journal of Southern African Studies 7:236-255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peacock, C.P., P. de Leeuw and J.M. King. 1982. Herd movement in the Mbirikani area. ILCA, Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, J.S. 1996. Botswana: fencing out the equity issue. Cattleposts and cattle ranching in the Kalahari Desert. Journal of Arid Environments 33:503-517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, P.E. 1994. Dividing the commons: Politics, policy, and culture in Botswana. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville and London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Picard, L.A. 1980. Bureaucrats, cattle, and public policy: land tenure changes in Botswana. Comparative Political Studies 13:313-356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, S. 2005. Pastoralism in the Gorno-Badakhshan Region of Tajikistan. Nomadic Peoples 9:199-206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutten, M. 1992. Selling wealth to buy poverty: The process of individualization of land ownership among the Maasai pastoralists of Kajiado District, Kenya, 1890-1990. Verlag breitenbach Publishers, Saarbrucken, Germany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandford, S. 2006. Foreword. In J. McPeak and P. Little, editors. Pastoral livestock marketing in eastern Africa: Research and policy challenges. Intermediate Technology Publications, Rugby, U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schapera, I. 1970. Tribal innovators: Tswana chiefs and social change, 1975, 1940. Athlone, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlee, G. 1991. Traditional pastoralists: land use strategies. Pages 130-164. In: H.J. Schwartz, S. Shaabani, and D. Walther, editors. Range management handbook of Kenya Vol. II, 1, Marsabit District. Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Livestock Development, Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, H.C. 1938. The Sukuma system of grazing rights known locally as kupela iseso or ngitiri. The East African Journal 4:129, 130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sneath, D. 1993. Social relations, networks and social organisation in post-socialist rural Mongolia. Nomadic Peoples 33:193-207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sneath, D. 2004. Proprietary regimes and sociotechnical systems: rights over land in Mongolia’s “age of the market”. In K. Verdery and C. Humphrey, editors. Property in question: Value transformation in the global economy. Berg, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sperling, L. 1987. The labor organization of Samburu pastoralism. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, McGill University, Department of Anthropology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stafford Smith, D.M.2002. SCALE land-use intensification/fragmentation hypothesis. SCALE internal discussion paper.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stahl, U. 2000. ‘At the end of the day we will fight’: communal land rights and ‘illegal fencing’ in the Otjozondjupa Region. In: M. Bollig and J-B Gewald, editors. People, cattle and land: Transformation of a pastoral society in southwestern Africa. Rudiger Koppe Verlag, Koln.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, C. and J. Kennan. 2005. Botswana beef exports and trade policy. Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton, U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tawney, R.H. 1912. The agrarian problem in the sixteenth century. Longmans Green and Co, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, M. and K. Homewood. 2002. Entrepreneurs, elites and exclusion in Maasailand: trends in wildlife conservation and pastoralists development. Human Ecology 30:107-138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, P., R. Kruska, N. Henninger, P. Kristjanson, R. Reid, F. Atieno, A. Odero and T. Ndegwa. 2002. Mapping poverty and livestock in the developing world. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, P.K., S.B. BurnSilver, and K.A. Galvin. 2006. Modelling the impacts of group ranch subdivision on agro-pastoral households in Kajiado, Kenya. Agricultural Systems 87:331-356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiffen, M., M. Mortimore and F. Gichuki. 1994. More people, less erosion: Environmental recovery in Kenya. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsimako, B. 1991. The Tribal Grazing Land Policy (TGLP) ranches performance to date. Ministry of Agriculture, Gaborone, Botswana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waller, R. 1976. The Maasai and the British 1895-1905: the origins of an alliance. Journal of African History 17:529-553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, W. 1998. The evolution of land tenure in Oshikoto. In J. Cox, C. Kerven, W. Werner and R. Behnke, editors. The privatisation of rangeland resources in Namibia: Enclosure in eastern Oshikoto. Overseas Development Institute, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, W. 2000. From communal pastures to enclosures: the development of land in Herero Reserves. In M. Bollig and J-B Gewald, editors. People, cattle and land: Transformation of a pastoral society in southwestern Africa. Rudiger Koppe Verlag, Koln.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, J.M. and S.J. Meadows. 1981. Evaluation of the contribution of group and individual ranches in Kajiado District, Kenya, to economic development and pastoral production strategies. Ministry of Livestock Development, Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. 1996a. The barbed walls of China: a contemporary grassland drama. The Journal of Asian Studies 55:665-691.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. 1966b. Grassland enclosures: catalyst of land degradation in Inner Mongolia. Human Organization 55:307-313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. 1997. The desert discourse of modern China. Modern China 23:328-355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, N. and C. Richard. 1999. The privatization process of rangeland and its impacts on the pastoral dynamics in the Hindu-Kush Himalaya: the case of western Sichuan, China. Proceedings of the VIth International Rangeland Congress, Vol. 1:14-21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeh, E. 2005. Green governmentality and pastoralism in western China: ‘converting pastures to grasslands’. Nomadic Peoples 9:9-30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhaoli, Y., W. Ning, Y. Dorji and R. Jia. 2005. A review of rangeland privatisation and its implications in the Tibetan Plateau, China. Nomadic Peoples 9:31-52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Springer

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Jr, R.H.B. (2008). The Drivers of Fragmentation in Arid and Semi-Arid Landscapes. In: Galvin, K.A., Reid, R.S., Jr, R.H.B., Hobbs, N.T. (eds) Fragmentation in Semi-Arid and Arid Landscapes. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4906-4_13

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics