Outline of Ecology

Abstract

Norway spruce migrated from several refugia following the last ice age (Fig. 11.1). The geographic range expanded throughout the current interglacial period and includes primarily higher mountain regions and lowlands. In the lowlands, the range of Norway spruce expanded in conjunction with significant increases in precipitation (Schmidt-Vogt 1977; Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 1983). During the last millennium, the range expansion of spruce has been assisted by human activity. The species has spread from its ecological mainstays to areas following fire, land clearing, or extensive logging. In the XIX and XX centuries Norway spruce was introduced into lowlands and lower mountain zones. Human activity also resulted in a lowering of the high-altitudinal limit of the species in European mountains, locally by as much as 200–400 m a.s.l. (Schmidt-Vogt 1977).