Abstract
The destruction of Hitler’s empire in 1945 confronted the United States with a novel situation: the continent of Europe had been wiped out as an independent entity in international relations. It is true that F. D. Roosevelt had anticipated this situation in developing his idea of the exclusive responsibility of the superpowers — his ‘four policemen’ — for keeping the peace, each in its sphere of influence. But when the United States actually faced this void in Europe, it had no alternative but to resort to continued bilateral cooperation with the Soviet Union within the framework of a future world organization.1 The attempt to build up a Soviet-American condominium over Europe failed before it was ever really established. American and Soviet ideas about how liberated Europe was to be were too far apart to provide the ground for a common policy. As Europe split along the Iron Curtain, a similar division seemed more and more probable in defeated Germany.
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Notes
John L. Harper, American Visions of Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 77
Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press 1992), pp. 163 ff.
State Department, Policy Planning Staff, No.13: Resumé of World Situation, 6 November 1947, quoted in Thomas Etzold and John Lewis Gaddis, eds, Containment: Documents on American Foreign Policy and Strategy, 1945–1950 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), pp. 93
George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925–1950 (London: Hutchinson, 1967), pp. 293–5
Harper, American Visions, pp. 95ff. (see note 1); Pierre Melandri, Les Etats Unis face à l’unification de l’Europe (Paris: Editions A. Pedone 1980), pp. 15ff 34._For the following see also Klaus Schwabe, ‘The United States and European Integration’, in Clemens Wurm, ed., Western Europe and Germany: The Beginnings of European Integration 1945–1969 (Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1995), pp. 116ff.
Cleveland, Memorandum, 12 June 1947, Truman Library; John L. Gaddis, ‘The United States and the Question of a Sphere of Influence in Europe, 1945–1949’, in Olav Riste, ed., Western Security: The Formative Years (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1985), pp. 70ff.
Max Beloff, The United States and the Unity of Europe (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1963), pp. 15ff.
See the highly revealing remarks by Dean Acheson to European foreign ministers, ‘Memorandum of a Conversation’, 3 April 1949, quoted in Cees Wiebes and Bert Zeemann, eds, ‘Eine Lehrstunde in Machtpolitik’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, vol. 40, 1992, pp. 415
K. Schwabe, ‘The Origins of the United States’ Engagement in Europe’, in Francis Heller and John Gillingham, eds, NATO: The Founding of the Atlantic Alliance and the Integration of Europe (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992), pp. 173–5
Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969), p. 395.
Klaus Schwabe, ‘“Ein Akt konstruktiver Staatskunst” — die USA und die Anfänge des Schuman-Plans’, in Schwabe, ed., Die Anfänge des Schuman-Plans 1950/51 (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlag, 1988), pp. 217 ff.
Jean Monnet, Mémoires (Paris: Fayard, 1976) p. 398.
Meeting of US Ambassadors at Rome, 22–24 March 1950, FRUS, 1950 3, p. 819; Nelson D. Lankford, The Last American Aristocrat: The Biography of Ambassador David K. E. Bruce (Boston: Little, Brown 1996), p. 221.
H. Freeman Mathews, Memorandum, 16 August 1950, FRUS, 1950, 3, pp. 212–15; Klaus Maier, ‘Die EVG in der Auβen-und Sicherheitspolitik der Truman-Administration’, in Hans-Erich Volkmann and Werner Schwengler, eds, Die Europäische Verteidigungsgemeinschaft. Stand und Probleme der Forschung (Boppard: Boldt Verlag, 1985), pp. 34–7
Klaus A. Maier, ‘Die internationalen Auseinandersetzungen um die Westintegration der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und Ihre Bewaffnung im Rahmen der Europäischen Verteidigungsgemeinschaft’, in Lutz Köllner et al., Die EVG-Phase (= Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt, ed., Anfänge westdeutscher Sicherheitspolitik, vol. 2) (Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag 1990), p. 20.
François Duchêne, Jean Monnet: The First Statesman of Interdependence (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994), pp. 231ff.
W. Meier-Dörnberg, ‘NATO und EVG’, in Klaus A. Maier and N. Wiggershaus, eds, Das Nordatlantische Bündnis 1949–1956 (Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 1993), pp. 219ff.
Holger Schröder, Jean Monnet und die amerikanische Unterstützung für die europäische Integration 1950–1957 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang 1994), pp. 326–9.
1952–54, 5, 1, pp. 993ff.; Conant to Secretary of State, 17 June 1954, FRUS, 1952–54, 5, 1, pp. 971ff.; Bunker to Secretary of State, 23 March 1953, FRUS, 1952–54, 5, 1, pp. 778ff.; R. Steininger, ‘John Foster Dulles, the European Defense Community, and the German Question’, in Richard Immermann, ed., John Foster Dulles and the Diplomacy of the Cold War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), pp. 101.
Pascaline Winand, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the United States of Europe (London: Macmillan, 1993), p. 79
Hanns Jürgen Küsters, Fondements de la Communauté économique européenne (Luxembourg, Brussels: Office des publications officielles des Communautés européennes, 1990), pp. 110–12
Wolfram Kaiser, Groβbritannien und die Europäische Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft 1955–1961 (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1996), p. 187.
Geoffrey Barraclough, Survey of International Affairs 1959/60, (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), p. 80.
Hans-Peter Schwarz, Adenauer. Der Staatsmann’. 1952–1967 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, 1991), pp. 291–3.
See, for example, Eisenhower’s statement before the NATO Council of 9 September 1959, quoted in G. Barraclough, Survey 1959/60, p. 84; also: John L. Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 130.
Marc Trachtenberg, ‘La formation du système de défense occidentale: Les Etats-Unis, la France et MC 48’, in Maurice Vaïsse et al., La France et l’Otan 1949–1996 (= Actes du colloque tenu à l’école militaire, 8, 9, 10 February 1996) (Paris: Editions Complexe, 1996), pp. 115–23.
Schwarz, Adenauer, pp. 292–5 (see note 43); Georges-Henri Soutou, L’alliance incertaine. Les rapports politico-stratégiques franco-allemands, 1954–1996 (Paris: Fayard 1996), pp. 64–7.
National Security Council Report, 4 November 1959, FRUS, 1958–60 7, 2, p. 307; also: Memorandum of Conversation Eisenhower—de Gaulle, 2 September 1959, FRUS, 1958–60, 7, 2, p. 261; Memorandum of Conversation with Eisenhower, 22 April 1960, FRUS, 1958–60 7, 2, p. 341; Herter to Macmillan, 30 June 1960, FRUS, 1958–60 7, 2, p. 396; Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Eisenhower-Herter, 10 August 1960, FRUS, 1958–60, 7, 2, p. 403;Frank Costigliola, France and the United States: The Cold Alliance since World War II (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1992), pp. 125–7.
Hans-Peter Schwarz, Die Ara Adenauer 1957–1963 (= Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, vol. 3) (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt; Wiesbaden: F. A. Brockhaus 1983), p. 120.
Eckart Conze, Die gaullistische Herausforderung. Die deutsch-französischen Beziehungen in der amerikanischen Europapolitik 1958–1963 (Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 1995), p. 95.
Alan P. Dobson, Anglo-American Relations in the 20th Century (London: Routledge 1995), pp. 125ff.
Report Prepared by the Consultant to the Department of State (Bowie), ‘The North Atlantic Nations: Tasks for the 1960s’, FRUS, 1958–60, 7, 1, p. 627.
George Ball, The Past Has Another Pattern. Memoirs, (New York: W. W. Norton, 1982), pp. 209
Memorandum of Conversation Kennedy–Adenauer, 15 November 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 125
Eric Roussel, Jean Monnet (Paris: Fayard 1996), pp. 764–7
C. Bowles, Circular Telegram, 3 November 1961, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 48ff.
Rusk, Circular Telegram, 27 April 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 83
Rusk, Memorandum of Conversation, Couve de Murville, 21 May 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 93.
State Department, Circular Telegram, 27 April 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 83
Quoted in: D. C. Watt, ed., Documents on International Affairs 1961 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 412.
For another example of this attitude, see Department of State, Paper for NATO Ministerial Meeting, 1 December 1961, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 338
Dept. of State, Scope Paper, 6 December 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 637.
Policy Directive, NATO and the Atlantic Nations, 20 April 1961, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 289
Winand, Eisenhower, Kennedy, pp. 241, 312. Memorandum of Conversation, Rusk-French Ambassador, 15 March 1961, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 268.
Kennedy knew full well that his controversy with de Gaulle would be settled as soon as he gave in to de Gaulle’s wishes for US support of a French nuclear deterrent and the setting up of a directorate (Memorandum of Conversation Kennedy— Spaak, 4 October 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 220
de Gaulle— Kennedy, 2 June 1961, FRUS, 1961–63,13, p. 666).
Memorandum of Conversation Kennedy—Macmillan, 19 December 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 1097
Dean Rusk, As I Saw It (New York: W W Norton, 1990), pp. 250–2
Taylor to Kennedy, 3 April 1961, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 369ff.
Memorandum of Meeting A. Malraux—Kennedy, 11 May 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 696ff.
Rusk to Department of State, 4 May 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 690ff.
Memorandum of Meeting Malraux—Kennedy, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 699.
Instruction to Bohlen, undated (1962), FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 736
Minutes of Meeting Kennedy—Rusk, 16 April 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 378
Among others, Monnet recommended at least making the offer of Polaris missiles to Great Britain conditional on British acceptance of multilateral control (Tuthill to Dept. of State, 16 December 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 140
G. McGeorge Bundy, Memorandum of Conversation, Kennedy, McNamara et al., 16 December 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 1090).
D. C. Watt, Survey of International Affairs 1962 (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), pp. 161–70
Winand, Eisenhower, Kennedy, pp. 320ff; Rusk—Bohlen, 1 January 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 743.
Summary Record NSC Meeting, 31 January 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 157–62
Memorandum of Conversation Spaak—Kennedy, 28 May 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 586.
Summary Record, NSC Meeting, 31 January 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 157
NSC Meeting, 25 January 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 487–91.
Memorandum of Conversation, Kennedy—Colombo, 4 October 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 225.
Summary Record, NSC Meeting, 5 February 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 176
Memorandum of Conversation Carstens—Rusk, 5 February 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 186
Memorandum of Conversation, Brentano—Rusk, 22 March 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 191
Text in Watt, Documents on International Affairs 1963 (London: Oxford University Press 1973), pp. 54 ff.
National Security Action Memorandum, 18 April 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 384–7
Rusk to NATO mission, 19 July 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 435ff.
David Klein, Memorandum of Conversation, Kennedy, Rusk et al.: Merchant Mission on MLF, 18 February 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 503–6
D. Klein, Memorandum of Conversation, Kennedy, Rusk et al.: Merchant Mission on MLF, 18 February 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 503–6.
M. Bundy, Memorandum for Kennedy, 15 June 1963, FRUS, 1961–63 13, pp. 593ff.
L. Merchant to Rusk, 20 March 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 534.
In an MLF, Montgomery was quoted, ‘the battle would be inside the ship rather than outside’ (FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 614).
Bundy, Memorandum, 11 July 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 603ff.
State Department, Scope Papers, 11 June 1962, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 106
Rusk—US Embassy, Bonn, 24 January 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 152.
Spaak assured Kennedy that ‘no one’ in Europe wanted de Gaulle to speak in Europe’s name; a French directorate would lead to neutralist trends in Europe (Memorandum of Conversation, Kennedy—Spaak, 4 October 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 223).
Schwarz, Die Ära Adenauer, p. 293; Memorandum of Conversation Adenauer-McGhee, 20 May 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 199.
Conze, Die gaullistische Herausforderung, p. 278; Memorandum of Conversation Kennedy— Couve de Murville, 25 May 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 773
Oliver Bange, ‘English, American, and German interests behind the Preamble to the Franco-German Treaty, 1963’, in Gustav Schmidt, ed., Zwischen Bündnissicherung und priveligierter Partnerschaft. Die deutsch-britischen Beziehungen und die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, 1955–1963 (Bochum: Universitätsverlag Brockmeyer 1995) pp. 225–80.
Ball, Memorandum to Kennedy, subject: ‘The mess in Europe and the meaning of your trip’, 20 June 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 204–13.
Record, NSC Executive Committee Meeting, 25 January 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 157ff
Summary Record NSC Meeting, 31 January 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 163.
Ball, Memorandum to Kennedy, 20 June 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 207.
For the following I am relying on: Erhard Forndran, Die Vereinigten Staaten und Europa. Erfahrungen und Perspektiven transatlantischer Beziehungen seit dem Ersten Weltkrieg (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlag, 1991)
Robert Paxton and Nicholas Wahl, eds, De Gaulle and the United States. A Centennial Reappraisal (Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1994)
Christian Hacke, Weltmacht wider Willen. DieAußitenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Berlin: Ullstein, 1993)
Pierre Gerbet, La Construction de l’Europe (Paris: Imprimerie nationale 1983)
For example, Memorandum of Conversation Kennedy—Adenauer, 12 April 1961, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, pp. 274–6.
Ball, Memorandum to Kennedy, 20 June 1963, FRUS, 1961–63, 13, p. 212.
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Schwabe, K. (1998). Atlantic Partnership and European Integration: American—European Policies and the German Problem, 1947–1969. In: Lundestad, G. (eds) No End to Alliance. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-26959-4_4
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