Abstract
One of the most vital threads binding together the complex radical ideology of the early feminists was a close acquaintance with Unitarianism. The immense influence which this denomination exerted upon contemporary culture has rarely been fully acknowledged by historians. Yet, its shadow loomed large over many critical aspects of Victorian intellectual life. While a great number of early feminists were the direct product of the Unitarian heritage, many others engaged directly, if informally, with this rich source of reforming impetus. The Unitarian tradition is thus a crucial, yet underexplored intellectual and cultural context in which to understand the emergence of the women’s rights movement.
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Freedom and Patriarchy — The Unitarian Background
Henry Gow, The Unitarians (Methuen, 1928);
H. L. Short, ‘Presbyterians Under a New Name’, in C. G. Bolam, et al, The English Presbyterians, From Elizabethan Puritanism to Modern Unitarianism (George Allen and Unwin, 1968), Chapter 6;
H. McLachlan, The Unitarian Movement in the Religious Life of England. Its Contribution to Thought and Learning 1700–1900 (George Allen and Unwin, 1934).
Raymond V. Holt, The Unitarian Contribution to Social Progress in England (Butler and Tanner, 1938).
See, for example, R. K. Webb, ‘Flying Missionaries: Unitarian Journalists in Victorian England’, in J. M. W. Bean (ed.), The Political Culture of Modern Britain, Studies in Memory of Stephen Koss (Hamish Hamilton, 1987), pp. 10–31;
D. C. Stange, British Unitarians Against Slavery, 1833–1865 (Cranbury, New Jersey: Associated University Presses, 1984);
Ruth Watts, ‘The Unitarian Contribution to Education in England from the Late Eighteenth Century to 1853’, (PhD thesis, University of Leicester, 1987).
John Seed, ‘Theologies of Power: Unitarianism and the Social Relations of Religious Discourse, 1800–1850’, in R. J. Morris (ed.), Class, Power and Social Structure in British Nineteenth Century Towns (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1986), pp. 108–56.
Russell Lant Carpenter, Memoirs of the Life and Work of Philip Pearsail Carpenter (C. Kegan Paul, 1850), p. 155;
John Thomas Barker (ed.), The Life of Joseph Barker. Written by Himself (Hodder and Stoughton, 1880), p. 281.
For a survey of the historiography, see Russell E. Richey, ‘Did the English Presbyterians Become Unitarians?’, Church History, Vol. 42, 1973, pp. 58–72.
Dennis G. Wigmore-Beddoes, Yesterday’s Radicals. A Study of the Affinity Between Unitarians and Broad Church Anglicanism in the Nineteenth Century (James Clarke, 1971), p. 21.
Francis E. Mineka, The Dissidence of Dissent, The ‘Monthly Repository’, 1806–1838 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1944), pp. 9–17;
R. K. Webb, ‘The Unitarian Background’, in Barbara Smith (ed.), Truth, Liberty, Religion: Essays Celebrating Two Hundred Years of Manchester College (Oxford: Manchester College, 1986), pp. 9–14.
P. H. Le Breton (ed.), Memoirs and Miscellanies of the Late Lucy Aikin Including Those Addressed to the Rev. Dr Channing from 1826 to 1842 (Longman, Green, Roberts, 1864), p. 237;
Russell Lant Carpenter, Memoirs of the Life of the Rev. Lant Carpenter, with Selections from his Correspondence (Bristol: Philip and Evans, 1842), p. 25.
Susanna Winkworth to F. C. Maurice, 22 May 1856. Cited in Margaret Shaen (ed.), Memorials of Two Sisters. Catherine and Susanna Winkworth (Longmans, Green, 1908), pp. 143–9.
Richard Acland Armstrong, Henry William Crosskey. His Life and Work (Birmingham: Cornish Brothers, 1895), p. 9.
W. A. C. Stewart, Progressives and Radicals in English Education. 1750–1870 (Macmillan, 1972), p. 66;
Charles Dickens to W. C. Macready, 17 August 1845, p. 357, Kathleen Tillotson, The Letters of Charles Dickens. Volume 4, 1844–1846 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), p. 357.
The tutor was Henry Morley. J. W. T. Ley, The Dickens Circle (Chapman and Hall, 1918), p. 309.
R. K. Webb, ‘The Gaskells as Unitarians’, in J. Shattock (ed.), Dickens and Other Victorians. Essays in Honour of Philip Collins (Macmillan, 1988), Chapter 9, pp. 144–5; Webb, ‘Unitarian Background’, pp. 10–12.
John Bowring, Autobiographical Recollections of Sir John Bowring (Henry S. King and Co., 1877), p. 122.
R. Brook Aspland, Memoir of the Life, Works and Correspondence of the Rev. Robert Aspland of Hackney (Edward T. Whitfield, 1850), p. 390; Carpenter, Memoirs of the Life of the Rev. Lant Carpenter, p. 380.
Richard W. Davis, Dissent in Politics. 1780–1830. The Political Life of William Smith M. P. (Epworth Press, 1971), p. 215.
Emily Bushrod, ‘The Diary of John Gent Brooks — A Victorian Commentary on Poverty (1844–1854)’, Transactions of the Unitarian Historical Society, Vol. 20, no. 2, April 1992, pp. 98–113.
G. M. Ditchfield, ‘The Priestley Riots in Historical Perspective’, Transactions of the Unitarian Historical Society, Vol. XX, no. 1, April 1991, pp. 3–16; Bowring, Autobiographical Recollections, p. 31.
R. D. Altick The Cowden Clarkes (Oxford University Press, 1948), p. 113.
Alan Ruston, ‘The Non-Con Clubs and Some Other Unitarian Clubs 1783 – 1914’, Transactions of the Unitarian Historical Society, Vol. XIV, no. 3, 1969, pp. 148–9; Seed, Theologies of Power’, p. 124.
Bowring, Autobiographical Recollections, pp. 73–4; J. W. Robberds, A Memoir of the Life and Writings of the late William Taylor of Norwich (John Murray, 1843), passim.
A good picture of the Unitarian community at Stoke Newington emerges in P. J. Shirren, Samuel Rogers, The Poet from Newington Green (Stoke Newington Public Libraries, 1963).
See also Frida Knight, University Rebel. The Life of William Frend (1757–1841) (Victor Gollancz, 1971), pp. 276–83.
John Seed, ‘Unitarianism, Political Economy and the Antinomies of Liberal Culture in Manchester, 1830–1850’, Social History, 7, 1982, p. 12; Mineka, Dissidence of Dissent, pp. 146–7.
Margaret Parnaby, ‘William Johnson Fox and the “Monthly Repository” circle of 1832–1836’, (PhD thesis, Australian National University, 1979), p. 37.
Unitarians played a particularly important role in the Sheffield Register, Cambridge Journal, Leeds Mercury and the Manchester Guardian. See Donald Read, Press and People. 1790–1850. Opinion in Three English Cities (Edward Arnold, 1961), pp. 68–9, 76, 85.
R. K. Webb, ‘John Hamilton Thorn, Intellect and Conscience in Liverpool’, in P. T. Phillips (ed.), The View from the Pulpit, Victorian Ministers and Society (Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada, 1978), p. 215;
Emily Bushrod, ‘The History of Unitarianism in Birmingham from the Middle of the Eighteenth Century to 1893’, (MA thesis, University of Birmingham, 1954), p. 11; Lucy Aikin to Dr Channing, 23 March 1839, Le Breton (ed.), Memoirs, Miscellanies and Letters of the Late Lucy Aikin, p. 387.
Elizabeth Gaskell to an unknown correspondent, [November-December] 1850, J. A. V. Chappie and Arthur Pollard (eds), The Letters of Mrs Gaskell (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1966), p. 136; T. H. Ryland, Reminiscences, quoted in Bushrod, ‘The History of Unitarianism in Birmingham’, p. 10.
Ian Sellers, ‘Unitarians and Social Change’, Hibbert Journal, 61, 1963, pp. 79–80.
Edith Morley, The Life and Times of Henry Crabb Robinson (J. M. Dent and Sons, 1935), p. 14.
E. S. Shaffer, ‘Kubla Khan’ and the Fall of Jerusalem. The Mythological School in Biblical Criticism and Secular Literature. 1770–1880 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), p. 35;
Rosemary Ashton, The German Idea. Four English Writers and the Reception of German Thought. 1800–1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), see especially pp. 12–13.
Henry Gow, The Unitarians (Methuen and Co., 1928), pp. 107–9.
J. Estlin Carpenter, The Bible in the Nineteenth Century (Longmans, Green, 1893). is an excellent source for understanding these, ideas;
Stephen Prickett, ‘The Religious Context’, in Prickett (ed.), The Romantics (Methuen and Co., 1981), pp. 115–63, see pp. 143–63 in particular; Shaffer, ‘Kubla Khan’ and the Fall of Jerusalem, p. 26.
Robert C. Solomon, Continental Philosophy since 1750. The Rise and Fall of the Self (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 45–55.
See Mineka, Dissidence of Dissent, pp. 123–5, for the debate on Wordsworth within the pages of the Monthly Repository. M. H. Abrams, Natural Supernaturalism. Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature (New York: W. W. Norton, 1973).
Philip F. Gura and Joel Myerson (eds), Critical Essays on American Transcendentalism (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982) provides a full insight into the movement.
Ralph L. Rusk (ed.), The Letters of Ralph Waldo Emerson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1939), Vol. 4, pp. 5–7, 32–6, 40–5, 54–8, 85–8, 97–7, 434–5.
Alan Ruston, ‘Radical Nonconformity in Hackney, 1805–1848’, Transactions of the Unitarian Historical Society, Vol. 14, no. 1, 1967, pp. 1–9;
Margaret Shaen, Memorials of Two Sisters. Catherine and Susanna Winkworth (Longmans, Green, 1908), p. 26.
Lucy Aikin to Dr Channing, 6 August 1841, in Le Breton, Memoirs, Miscellanies and Letters of the Late Lucy Aikin, pp. 425–8; Henry Solly, These Eighty Years; or, The Story of an Unfinished Life (Simpkin, Marshall and Co., 1893), Vol. I, p. 373.
Deborah Gorham, ‘Victorian Reform as a Family Business’, in A. S. Wohl (ed.), The Victorian Family. Structure and Stresses (Croom Helm, 1978), see pp. 120–6.
J. F. C. Harrison, Robert Owen and the Owenites in Britain and America. The Quest for the New Moral World (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969), p. 6.
Ibid., p. 87; Harold Silver, ‘Owen’s Reputation as an Educationalist’, in S. Pollard and J. Salt (eds), Robert Owen. Prophet of the Poor. Essays in Honour of the Two Hundredth Anniversary of his Birth (Macmillan, 1971), Chapter 4. See especially p. 79; Monthly Repository, Vol. XVII, 1823, pp. 450–7, cited in Mineka, Dissidence of Dissent, p. 163.
Watts, ‘Unitarian Contribution to Education’, p. 424. Mary A. De Morgan (ed.), Three Score Years and Ten. Reminiscences of the Late Sophia Elizabeth De Morgan (Richard Bentley and Son, 1895), pp. 137–60.
George G. Iggers (ed.), The Doctrine of Saint-Simon. An Exposition. First Year, 1828–1829 (New York: Schocken, 1972), passim; Bowring, Autobiographical Recollections, p. 313.
Barbara Taylor, Eve and the New Jerusalem. Socialism and Feminism in the Nineteenth Century (Virago, 1983);
Gail Malmgreen, Neither Bread nor Roses. Utopian Feminists and the English Working Class 1800–1850 (Brighton: John L. Noyce, 1978).
Mineka, Dissidence of Dissent, p. 284; Seed, ‘Theologies of Power’, pp. 137–9; Ruth Watts, ‘Knowledge is Power — Unitarians, Gender and Education in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries’, Gender and Education, Vol. 1, no. 1, 1989, pp. 47–8; she does not discuss its implications. Elizabeth Isichei has hinted that a disparity between liberal ideology and social conservatism might have spurred Quaker women to feminist awareness. Isichei, Victorian Quakers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 252.
Ruth Watts, ‘The Unitarian Contribution to the Development of Female Education, 1790–1850’, History of Education, Vol. 9, no. 4, 1980, p. 275.
Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes. Men and Women of the English Middle Class (Hutchinson, 1987), passim.
Judy Lown, Women and Industrialisation. Gender at Work in Nineteenth Century England (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990), e.g. pp. 97–8.
Catherine Hall, ‘The Early Formation of Victorian Domestic Ideology’, in S. Burman (ed.), Fit Work for Women (Croom Helm, 1979), pp. 15–32.
John Seed, ‘Unitarianism, Political Economy and the Antinomies of Liberal Culture in Manchester, 1830–1850’, Social History, 7, 1982, see p. 25.
F. B. Tolles (ed.), Slavery and the ‘Woman Question ‘, Lucretia Mott’s Diary of her Visit to Great Britain to Attend the World’s Anti-Slavery Convention of 1840 (Friends’ Historical Society, 1952), p. 76; see also pp. 15, 62.
Sheila R. Herstein, A Mid-Victorian Feminist. Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 8–16.
Hope Malleson, Elizabeth Malleson 1828–1916, Autobiographical Notes and Letters (Printed for Private Circulation, 1926), pp. 35–6.
Sarah Austin cited the correspondence in a letter to Barthélemy St Hilaire, 27 June 1860, quoted in Janet Ross, Three Generations of English Women. Memoirs and Correspondence of Susannah Taylor, Sarah Austin and Lady Duff Gordon (T. Fisher Unwin, 1893), pp. 363–4.
Sarah Austin, Two Letters on Girls’ School and on the Training of Working Women (Chapman and Hall, 1857), p. 8; Tolles, Slavery and the ‘Woman Question’, pp. 59–60; Bushrod, ‘History of Unitarianism in Birmingham’, p. 173.
Stinchcombe, ‘Elizabeth Malleson’, p. 57; Frances Power Cobbe, Life of Frances Power Cobbe by Herself (Boston and New York: Riverside Press, 1894), Vol. I, p. 100; Letter from Susannah Taylor to J. Beecroft, 11 April 1785, cited in Ross, Three Generations of English Women, pp. 19–21.
Quoted in Margaret Bryant, The Unexpected Revolution. A Study in the History of the Education of Women and Girls in the Nineteenth Century (University of London Institute of Education, 1979), p. 39.
Jane Rendall, ‘Friendship and Politics: Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon (1827–91) and Bessie Raynor Parkes (1829–1925)’, in Jane Rendall and Susan Mendus (eds), Sexuality and Subordination. Interdisciplinary Studies of Gender in the Nineteenth Century (Routledge, 1989), pp. 136–70. See p. 145.
Harriet Martineau, Autobiography (Virago, 1983, first published 1877), Vol. II, p. 121; Elizabeth Gaskell to unknown correspondent, March 1849, Chappie and Pollard (eds), The Letters of Mrs. Gaskell, pp. 71–2.
Mary Carpenter to Dr Guillaume, 12 February 1873, J. Estlin Carpenter, The Life and Work of Mary Carpenter (Macmillan, 1879), p. 405; Dr P. Carpenter to Professor Henry, 4 July 1860, ibid., pp. 266–7.
Geraldine Jewsbury to Jane Carlyle, 1849, Annie E. Ireland (ed.), Selections from the Letters of Geraldine Endsor Jewsbury to Jane Welsh Carlyle (Longmans, Green, 1892), p. 348.
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© 1995 Kathryn Gleadle
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Gleadle, K. (1995). Freedom and Patriarchy — The Unitarian Background. In: The Early Feminists. Studies in Gender History. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-26582-4_2
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