Abstract
Guibert of Nogent, in a famous phrase, described the First Crusade as a new path of salvation which allowed laymen to earn redemption without changing their status and becoming monks.1 This theme was taken up by later apologists and recruiters of further military expeditions to the Holy Land, notably St Bernard in his praise of the Templars in the late 1120s and his preaching of the Second Crusade in the 1140s, where the new opportunity was restyled as a unique bargain which God was offering his faithful. This identification of a fresh means of Grace, a new form of Holy War, has been generally accepted by modern historians. Carl Erdmann, after his painstaking excavation of the roots of crusading, insisted on the novelty of the First Crusade. The events of should be 1095–99 have been commonly regarded as marking an epoch in the Church’s acceptance of secular militarism; in the development of theories of Holy War; and in opportunities for the legitimate expression of lay military and chivalric ambitions. Yet the evidence from the eighty years after the capture of Jerusalem hardly supports such categorical assumptions.
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Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei Per Francos, Recueil des Historiens des Croisades, ed. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (Paris 1841–1906) Documents Occidentaux (henceforth RHC Occ.), iv, p. 124.
Robert of Rheims, Historia Iherosolimitana, RHC Occ., iii, p. 723; J. Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (London 1986), ch. 6.
H. W. C. Davis, ‘Henry of Blois and Brian FitzCount’, English Historical Review (henceforth EHR), xxv (1910), pp. 301–3.
Patrologia cursus completus. Series Latina (henceforth PL), ed. J. P. Migne (1844–64), 180, cols. 1064–6. E. Caspar, ‘Die Kreuzzugsbullen Eugens III’, Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ältere Deutsche Geschichtskunde, 45 (1924), pp. 300–5 and, in general, pp. 285–305; for an English translation, L. and J. Riley-Smith, The Crusades; Idea and Reality (London 1981), pp. 57–9.
Patrologia cursus completus. Series Latina (henceforth PL), ed. J. P. Migne (1844–64), 180, cols. 1064–6. E. Caspar, ‘Die Kreuzzugsbullen Eugens III’, Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ältere Deutsche Geschichtskunde, 45 (1924), pp. 300–5 and, in general, pp. 285–305; for an English translation, L. and J. Riley-Smith, The Crusades; Idea and Reality (London 1981), pp. 57–9.
Bernard of Clairvaux, Opera, ed. J. Leclercq et al. (Rome 1957–77), vols. vii, viii, Epistolae, nos 256, 288, 363–5, 371, 380, 467–9. Letters of St Bernard of Clairvaux, trans. B. S.James (London 1953), nos 391–6, 398–401, 408, 410; J. Bédier, Les chansons de croisade (Paris 1909), pp. 8–11 (Chevalier, Mult Estes Guariz, esp. 1.4: ‘Ki li vut fait tels deshenors’).
Bernard of Clairvaux, Opera, ed. J. Leclercq et al. (Rome 1957–77), vols. vii, viii, Epistolae, nos 256, 288, 363–5, 371, 380, 467–9. Letters of St Bernard of Clairvaux, trans. B. S.James (London 1953), nos 391–6, 398–401, 408, 410; J. Bédier, Les chansons de croisade (Paris 1909), pp. 8–11 (Chevalier, Mult Estes Guariz, esp. 1.4: ‘Ki li vut fait tels deshenors’).
For Quantum praedecessores, see n. 4 above; cf. J. G. Rowe’s comment that the bull was ‘a shot in the dark’, ‘Origins of the Second Crusade’, The Second Crusade and the Cistercians, ed. M. Gervers (New York 1992), p. 86; in general see G. Constable, ‘The Second Crusade as seen by contemporaries’, Traditio, ix (1953), esp. pp. 247–65.
For Quantum praedecessores, see n. 4 above; cf. J. G. Rowe’s comment that the bull was ‘a shot in the dark’, ‘Origins of the Second Crusade’, The Second Crusade and the Cistercians, ed. M. Gervers (New York 1992), p. 86; in general see G. Constable, ‘The Second Crusade as seen by contemporaries’, Traditio, ix (1953), esp. pp. 247–65.
J. Gilchrist, ‘The Erdmann Thesis and the Canon Law 1083–1141’, Crusade and Settlement, pp. 37–45; J. Gilchrist, ‘The Papacy and war against the “Saracens” 795–1216’, The International History Review, 10 (1988), pp. 174–97; cf. a different recent view, H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Canon Law and the First Crusade’, Horns of Hattin, ed. B. Z. Kedar (Jerusalem 1992), pp. 41–8. For a more general similar perspective, C. Morris, The Papal Monarchy (Oxford 1989), pp. 277–80.
J. Gilchrist, ‘The Erdmann Thesis and the Canon Law 1083–1141’, Crusade and Settlement, pp. 37–45; J. Gilchrist, ‘The Papacy and war against the “Saracens” 795–1216’, The International History Review, 10 (1988), pp. 174–97; cf. a different recent view, H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Canon Law and the First Crusade’, Horns of Hattin, ed. B. Z. Kedar (Jerusalem 1992), pp. 41–8. For a more general similar perspective, C. Morris, The Papal Monarchy (Oxford 1989), pp. 277–80.
J. Gilchrist, ‘The Erdmann Thesis and the Canon Law 1083–1141’, Crusade and Settlement, pp. 37–45; J. Gilchrist, ‘The Papacy and war against the “Saracens” 795–1216’, The International History Review, 10 (1988), pp. 174–97; cf. a different recent view, H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Canon Law and the First Crusade’, Horns of Hattin, ed. B. Z. Kedar (Jerusalem 1992), pp. 41–8. For a more general similar perspective, C. Morris, The Papal Monarchy (Oxford 1989), pp. 277–80.
J. Gilchrist, ‘The Erdmann Thesis and the Canon Law 1083–1141’, Crusade and Settlement, pp. 37–45; J. Gilchrist, ‘The Papacy and war against the “Saracens” 795–1216’, The International History Review, 10 (1988), pp. 174–97; cf. a different recent view, H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Canon Law and the First Crusade’, Horns of Hattin, ed. B. Z. Kedar (Jerusalem 1992), pp. 41–8. For a more general similar perspective, C. Morris, The Papal Monarchy (Oxford 1989), pp. 277–80.
Constable, ‘Second Crusade’, pp. 241–4; G. Constable, ‘Medieval Charters as a Source for the History of the Crusades’, Crusade and Settlement, pp. 73–89; G. Constable, ‘The Financing of the Crusades in the Twelfth Century’, Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem Presented to Joshua Prawer, ed. B. Z. Kedar, H. E. Mayer and R. C. Smail (Jerusalem 1982), pp. 64–88. Cf. M. Bull, Knightly Piety and the Lay Response to the First Crusade (Oxford 1993), esp. chs. 4, 6.
Constable, ‘Second Crusade’, pp. 241–4; G. Constable, ‘Medieval Charters as a Source for the History of the Crusades’, Crusade and Settlement, pp. 73–89; G. Constable, ‘The Financing of the Crusades in the Twelfth Century’, Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem Presented to Joshua Prawer, ed. B. Z. Kedar, H. E. Mayer and R. C. Smail (Jerusalem 1982), pp. 64–88. Cf. M. Bull, Knightly Piety and the Lay Response to the First Crusade (Oxford 1993), esp. chs. 4, 6.
Odo of Deuil, De Profectione Ludoaici VII in Orientem, ed. V. G. Berry (New York 1948), p. 2–3; Receuil des historiens des Gaules et de la France (henceforth RHGF), ed. M. Bouquet et al. (Paris 1738–1904), xv, p. 488; Constable, ‘Second Crusade’, pp. 216–44.
J. Riley-Smith, ‘Death on the First Crusade’, The End of Strife, ed. D. M. Loades (London 1984); Riley-Smith, First Crusade, esp. pp. 91–100, 112–19; cf. the Iberian experiences during the Second Crusade of Duodechlin of Lahnstein, M[onumenta] G[ermaniae] H[istorica], S[criptores] (henceforth MGHS) (Hanover, etc. 1826– ), xvii, p. 28; De Expugnatione Scalabis, Portugaliae Monumenta Historia, Scriptores, i (Lisbon 1856), pp. 94–5. Perhaps miracles were more a feature of successful campaigns: martyrs were common to all sorts, Constable, ‘Second Crusade’, pp. 221–2.
Radulfus Glaber, Historiae Libri Quinque, ed. J. France (Oxford 1989), pp. 82–5; Gratian, Decretum, ed. A. Friedberg, Corpus Iuris Canonici, i (Leipzig 1879), Causa XXIII: Quest. V, c. xlvi; Quest. VIII, c. vii.
Radulfus Glaber, Historiae Libri Quinque, ed. J. France (Oxford 1989), pp. 82–5; Gratian, Decretum, ed. A. Friedberg, Corpus Iuris Canonici, i (Leipzig 1879), Causa XXIII: Quest. V, c. xlvi; Quest. VIII, c. vii.
Compare Robert of Flanders (‘his memory will live for ever’) with the deserters Stephen of Blois or the Grandmesnil brothers: Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum, ed. T. Arnold, Rolls Series (henceforth RS) (London 1879), p. 238; Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, ed. M. Chibnall (Oxford 1969–80), v, pp. 98, 106, 268, 324: vi. p.18.
C. W. David, Robert Curthose (Cambridge, Mass. 1920), p. 179 and n. 17; Robert of Torigni, Chronicle, Chronicles of the reigns of Stephen, Henry II and Richard I, ed. R. Howlett, iv, RS (London 1889), pp. 85–6.
C. W. David, Robert Curthose (Cambridge, Mass. 1920), p. 179 and n. 17; Robert of Torigni, Chronicle, Chronicles of the reigns of Stephen, Henry II and Richard I, ed. R. Howlett, iv, RS (London 1889), pp. 85–6.
Suger, Vie de Louis le Gros, ed. H. Waquet (Paris 1929), pp. 78–9; Letters of Peter the Venerable, ed. G. Constable (Cambridge, Mass. 1967), i, p. 409; Letters of St. Bernard, no. 391, p. 461; Bernard, Opera, iii, p. 215.
Bede, Ecclesiastical History, ed. B. Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford 1967), esp. Bks II, III; Gilchrist, ‘Papacy and war’, pp. 179–83; P. D. King, Charlemagne: Translated Sources (Lancaster, 1987), Annals and Revised Annals of the Kingdom of the Franks, passim; cf. p. 85 for papal absolution in the war against Tassilo of Bavaria. For contemporary Carolingian acceptance of church militancy, see the Veronese poem of the late eighth century on Pippin of Italy’s victory over the Avars, verses 4 and 13, and Ernoldus Nigellus’s pre-840 poem In Honorem Hludovici Pii regarding the Frankish conquest of the Frisians and Saxons, 11. 275, 281–4, P. Godman, Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance (Oxford 1985), pp. 188–91; 254–5. But cf. Alcuin’s essentially pacifist response to the sack of Lindisfarne in 793 (Godman, Poetry, pp. 126–39).
Bede, Ecclesiastical History, ed. B. Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford 1967), esp. Bks II, III; Gilchrist, ‘Papacy and war’, pp. 179–83; P. D. King, Charlemagne: Translated Sources (Lancaster, 1987), Annals and Revised Annals of the Kingdom of the Franks, passim; cf. p. 85 for papal absolution in the war against Tassilo of Bavaria. For contemporary Carolingian acceptance of church militancy, see the Veronese poem of the late eighth century on Pippin of Italy’s victory over the Avars, verses 4 and 13, and Ernoldus Nigellus’s pre-840 poem In Honorem Hludovici Pii regarding the Frankish conquest of the Frisians and Saxons, 11. 275, 281–4, P. Godman, Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance (Oxford 1985), pp. 188–91; 254–5. But cf. Alcuin’s essentially pacifist response to the sack of Lindisfarne in 793 (Godman, Poetry, pp. 126–39).
Bede, Ecclesiastical History, ed. B. Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford 1967), esp. Bks II, III; Gilchrist, ‘Papacy and war’, pp. 179–83; P. D. King, Charlemagne: Translated Sources (Lancaster, 1987), Annals and Revised Annals of the Kingdom of the Franks, passim; cf. p. 85 for papal absolution in the war against Tassilo of Bavaria. For contemporary Carolingian acceptance of church militancy, see the Veronese poem of the late eighth century on Pippin of Italy’s victory over the Avars, verses 4 and 13, and Ernoldus Nigellus’s pre-840 poem In Honorem Hludovici Pii regarding the Frankish conquest of the Frisians and Saxons, 11. 275, 281–4, P. Godman, Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance (Oxford 1985), pp. 188–91; 254–5. But cf. Alcuin’s essentially pacifist response to the sack of Lindisfarne in 793 (Godman, Poetry, pp. 126–39).
For Lucius II, see the references in J. Kelly, The Oxford Dictionary of the Popes (Oxford 1986), p. 172; H. Zimmermann, Papstregesten 911–1024 (1969), no. 34, p. 14 and no. 35, p. 15; Liutprand of Cremona, Historia Ottonis, Opera, ed. J. Becker, Monumenta Germanica Historica (henceforth MGH) (Hanover and Leipzig 1915), pp. 166–7; Gilchrist, ‘Papacy and war’, pp. 179 et seq.
For Lucius II, see the references in J. Kelly, The Oxford Dictionary of the Popes (Oxford 1986), p. 172; H. Zimmermann, Papstregesten 911–1024 (1969), no. 34, p. 14 and no. 35, p. 15; Liutprand of Cremona, Historia Ottonis, Opera, ed. J. Becker, Monumenta Germanica Historica (henceforth MGH) (Hanover and Leipzig 1915), pp. 166–7; Gilchrist, ‘Papacy and war’, pp. 179 et seq.
Liutprand of Cremona, Historia Ottonis, Opera, ed. J. Becker, Monumenta Germanica Historica (henceforth MGH) (Hanover and Leipzig 1915), pp. 166–7; Gilchrist, ‘Papacy and war’, pp. 179 et seq.
Ralph of Bethlehem: William of Tyre, Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum, RHC Occ., i-2, p. 162; B. Hamilton, The Latin Church in the Crusader States (London 1980), pp. 117–18, 123, 125, 130–1, 157, 164–5;
Rainald von Dassel: R. Munz, Frederick Barbarossa (London 1969), esp. p. 95 and refs.;
Hubert Walter: Itinerarium peregrinorum et gesta regis Ricardi, ed. W. Stubbs, RS (London 1864), p. 116; Boniface of Savoy: Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, ed. H. R. Luard, 7 vols, RS (London 1872–83), v, pp. 121–2; Bishop Despenser: R. B. Dobson, The Peasants’ Revolt (London 1970), pp. 236–8, 259–61.
Boniface of Savoy: Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, ed. H. R. Luard, 7 vols, RS (London 1872–83), v, pp. 121–2; Bishop Despenser: R. B. Dobson, The Peasants’ Revolt (London 1970), pp. 236–8, 259–61.
Bishop Despenser: R. B. Dobson, The Peasants’ Revolt (London 1970), pp. 236–8, 259–61.
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, sub anno 1128, English Historical Documents, ii, ed. D. C. Douglas (London 1953), p. 195; William of Tyre, Historia, RHC Occ., i-2, p. 40; Gesta Ambaziensium Dominorum, Chroniques d’Anjou, ed. P. Machegay and A. Salmon (Paris 1856), p. 205 (cf. Fulk’s visit of 1120 which was, apparently, explicitly penitential, Orderic Vitalis, vi, p. 310). Cf. Calixtus II’s authorization of a crusade and the Venetian response in 1122–24; J. Riley-Smith, ‘The Venetian Crusade of 1122–24’, I communi italiani nel regno di Gerusalemme, ed. B. Kedar (Genoa 1986), pp. 337–50.
On papal policy in the twelfth century, E. D. Hehl, Kirche und Krieg im 12 Jahrhundert (Stuttgart 1980) and Morris, Papal Monarchy.
More specifically, R. C. Smail, ‘Latin Syria and the west 1149–1187’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (henceforth TRHS) 5th ser., 19 (1969) pp. 1–20
S. Runciman, History of the Crusades (Cambridge 1951–54), ii, pp. 46–9 (p. 48: ‘The interests of Christendom as a whole were to be sacrificed to the interests of Frankish adventurers’);
J. G. Rowe, ‘Paschal II, Bohemond of Antioch and the Byzantine Empire’, Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, xlix (1966), pp. 165–202; Orderic Vitalis, vi, pp. 68–73; Suger, Vie de Louis le Gros. pp. 44–51.
E. Vacandard, Vie de Saint Bernard, Abbé de Clairvaux, 2 vols (Paris 1895), ii, pp. 439–46. RhGF, xv, p. 457, no. 65.
Letters of John of Salisbury, ed. W. J. Miller and C. N. L. Brooke, ii (Oxford 1979), p. 632, no. 287; C. J. Tyerman, England and the Crusades (Chicago 1988), pp. 37–8;
E. Siberry, Criticism of Crusading (Oxford 1985), esp. pp. 190–2 (cf. pp. 77–80).
On the early development of these legends, see M. Bennett, ‘First crusaders’ images of Muslims: the influence of vernacular poetry’, Forum for Modern Languages Studies, 22, no. 2 (1986), pp. 101–22; for a different emphasis
N. Daniel, Heroes and Saracens (Edinburgh 1984), passim. Robert of Normandy even had false legends — such as his refusal of the crown of Jerusalem and his splitting of a Muslim emir into two — concocted during his lifetime, e.g. pre-1125 (Robert died in 1134),
William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum, ed. W. Stubbs, 2 vols, RS (London 1887–89), ii, pp. 433, 460, 461.
PL, 180, cols 1064–6; 200, cols 384–6, 599–601, 1294–6; Smail, ‘Latin Syria and the west’, p. 18; R. Hiestand (ed.), Papsturkunden für Templer und Johanniter, Abhandlungen des Akademie der Wissenschaften in Gottingen, lxxvii (1972) nos 165, 175; for Audita tremendi (29 Oct. 1187),
Roger of Howden, Gesta regis Henrici Secundi, ed. W. Stubbs, 2 vols, RS (London 1867), ii, pp. 15–19 and A. Chroust (ed.), ‘Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris’, MGHS (Berlin 1928), v, pp. 6–10.
P. Jaffé, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, ii (Leipzig 1886), p. 296. no. 12684.
Suger, Vie de Louis le Gros, pp. 174–6; Guibert of Nogent, Autobiographie, ed. E. R. Labande (Paris 1981). p. 410; Orderic Vitalis, vi. pp. 258–9.
Caffaro, Annales Ianuenses, ed. L. T. Belgrano, Fonti per la Storia d’Italia, ii (Rome 1890), pp. 33–5; Ystoria captionis Almarie et Turtuose, in Belgrano, Fonti, pp. 79–89: Constable, ‘Second Crusade’, pp. 226–35.
P. Linehan, ‘The Synod of Segovia (1166)’, Bulletin of Medieval Canon Law, x (1980), p. 42.
PL, 163, col. 515 for Lorenzo of Verona’s account of recruitment for the Balearic campaign; for Calixtus’s letter of 2 April 1123, D. Mansilla, La documentación pontífica hasta Innocencio III (Rome 1955), no. 62; the 1123 Lateran decree: J. D. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum Collectio, xxi, col. 284; for Gelasius II’s letter of 1118, PL, 163, col. 508, no. 25;
H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘The Mahdia campaign of 1087’, EHR, 92 (1977), pp. 1–29; De Expugnatione Scalabis, pp. 94–5; De Expugnatione Lyxbonensis, ed. C. W. David (New York 1936), p. 175. In general,
R. A. Fletcher, ‘Reconquest and crusade in Spain c. 1050–1150’, TRHS 37(1987), pp. 31–47: Bull, Knightly Piety, ch. 2.
Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regum Britanniae, ed. A. Griscom and R. Ellis Jones (London 1929), pp. 437–8;
De Expugnatione Lyxbonensis. The author has been identified as a prominent Anglo-Norman priest on the expedition, Raol, by H. Livermore, ‘The “Conquest of Lisbon” and its author’, Portuguese Studies vi (1990), 1–16.
Cf. the renewed absolution for the crusaders at Constantinople in the winter of 1203–04 and the arguments employed by the clergy then, Geoffrey de Villehardouin, De la Conquête de Constantinople, ed. P. Paris (Paris 1838), pp. 71–2.
P. Jaffe, Monumenta Corbeiensia (Berlin 1864), p. 126, no. 48; RhGF, xv, pp. 495–6.
in general, M. Barber, The New Knighthood (Cambridge 1993).
J. S. C. Riley-Smith, ‘Peace never established: the case of the Kingdom of Jerusalem’, TRHS, 5th ser., xxviii (1978), pp. 87–8, 94–5 and n. 47, p. 102; cf. Riley-Smith, ‘Venetian Crusade’. William of Tyre, Historia, RHC Occ., i-1, p. 549 is silent on the Doge’s status, the implication being that he was simply a pilgrim; Albert of Aachen, Historia Hierosolymitana, RHC Occ., iv, pp. 595–7, 600–1, 632–4; K. Jordan, Henry the Lion, trans. P. S. Falla (Oxford 1986), pp. 150–4.
M. Markowski, ‘Crucesignatus: its origins and early usage’, Journal of Medieval History, 10 (1984), pp. 157–65; for bearing the Cross against the Moors of the Balearic islands and Spain, Lorenzo of Verona, De Bello Balearico, PL, 163, col. 515; Mansilla, La documentación pontífica, no. 62 and above, n. 36.
H. Hagenmeyer, Die Kreuzzugsbriefe aus den Jahren 1088–1100 (Innsbruck 1902), p. 142.
Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosolimitanorum, ed. R. Hill (London 1962), p. 7.
Libellus de Vita et Miraculis S. Godrici Heremitae de Finchale, ed. J. Stevenson, Surtees Society (1847), pp. 33–4,52–7; cf. William of Newburgh’s account of Godric’s visit to Jerusalem barefoot and in poverty, Historia rerum Anglicarum, ed. R. Howlett, Chronicles of the reigns of Stephen, Henry II and Richard I, i, RS (London 1884). p. 149.
Chartes de St. Julien de Tours, ed. L. J. Denis, 2 vols (Le Mans 1912, 1913), i, pp. 87–8, no. 67.
J. A. Brundage, ‘Crucesignari: the rite for taking the Cross in England’, Traditio, xxii (1966), pp. 289–310; Odo of Deuil, De Profectione, pp. 8–11; Vita Godrici, p. 33 (where the Cross was given by a priest); Chronica de Gestis Consulum Andegavorum, Chroniques d’Anjou, p. 152; Chartes de St Julien de Tours, i, no. 67.
Brundage, ‘Crucesignari’, passim; K. Pennington, ‘The rite for taking the Cross in the twelfth century’, Traditio, xxx (1974), pp. 429–35.
See above, n. 61; M. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record (London 1979), esp. pp. 244–8 for crosses.
Pennington, ‘Rite’, p. 433, late twelfth-century, possibly Italian; cf. similarly wide protective powers in the so-called Bari Pontifical, p. 432; for a fourteenth-century example, A. Franz, Die Kirchlichen Benediktionen im Mittelalter, ii (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1909), p. 284.
In general, see the classic survey, J. A. Brundage, Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader (Madison 1969).
Epistolae Pontifacurrt Romanorum ineditae, ed. S. Löwenfeld (Leipzig 1885), no. 199, pp. 103–4; Howden, Gesta Henrici, ii, 15–19.
Glanvill, Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Angliae, ed. G. D. G. Hall (London 1965), pp. 16–17, 151; for the distinctions drawn between pilgrimages and crusades,
Henry de Bracton, De legibus et consuetudinibus Angliae, ed. T. Twiss, 6 vols, RS (London 1878–83), v, pp. 159–65 (although as Professor Thorne has shown, Bracton was almost certainly not the author);
John de Longueville, Modus Tenendi Curias (c.1307), The Court Baron, ed. F. W. Maitland and W. P. Baildon, Selden Society (London 1891), p. 82; cf. Jean de Joinville’s reference (c.1290s) to the ‘pèlerinaige de la croix’, Histoire de St Louis, ed. N. de Wailly (Paris 1868), p. 2.
Councils and Synods with other Documents relating to the English Church, gen. ed. F. W. Powicke (Oxford 1964 and 1981), I-ii, pp. 1028–9, for the crusader’s term of three years.
In quantis pressuris, 29 June 1166, Hiestand, Papsturkunden für Templer und Johanniter, no. 53; Pipe Roll 3 Richard I, ed. D. M. Stenton (London 1926), pp. 33 (where, in line with the 1188 ordinances, Richard of Clare pleads for a moratorium for his debts ‘ad terminum crucesignatorum’), 76. In general, it may be noted that most of the evidence used by Brundage, Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader, to show how privileges worked comes from the Public Record Office, i.e. the archives of secular, not ecclesiastical, government.
Recueil des chartes de l’abbaye de Cluny, ed. A. Bruel, v (Paris 1894), no. 3737, p. 87;
Cartulaire de l’abbaye cardinale de la Trinité de Vendôme, ed. C. Metais Paris 1893–97), ii, no. 402, pp. 157–8;
Annales Herbipolensis, MGHS, ed. G. H. Pertz, xvi (Hanover 1858), p. 3.
For two recent regional studies of this, C. B. Bouchard, Sword, Miter and Cloister: Nobility and the Church in Burgundy 980–1198 (Ithaca, 1987); Bull, Knightly Piety.
C. Morris, The Discovery of the Individual 1050–1200 (London 1972), esp. pp. 96–107; Brundage, ‘St Bernard’, Second Crusade and Cistercians, pp. 29–30; for possible Cistercian influence on popular crusade songs on the theme of love, M. Switten, ‘Singing the Second Crusade’, Second Crusade and Cistercians, pp. 67–76.
Walter Map, De Nugis Curialium, ed. M. R. James, C. N. L. Brooke and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford 1983);
W. L. Warren, Henry II (London 1973), ch. 8;
Chretien de Troyes, Arthurian Romances, trans. D. D. R. Owen (London 1987).
De Expugnatione, Lyxbonensis, pp. 56–7; 104–5; De Itinere Frisonum, Quinti belli sacri scriptores minores, ed. R. Rohricht (Geneva 1879), pp. 59, 69; Gesta Crucegerorum Rhenanorum, Röhricht, De Itinere, p. 30; Ralph of Diceto, Ymagines Historiarum, Opera Historica, ed. W. Stubbs, 2 vols, RS (London 1876), ii, p. 65; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 69–79, 182–3.
De Expugnatione, Lyxbonensis, pp. 56–7; 104–5; De Itinere Frisonum, Quinti belli sacri scriptores minores, ed. R. Rohricht (Geneva 1879), pp. 59, 69; Gesta Crucegerorum Rhenanorum, Röhricht, De Itinere, p. 30; Ralph of Diceto, Ymagines Historiarum, Opera Historica, ed. W. Stubbs, 2 vols, RS (London 1876), ii, p. 65; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 69–79, 182–3.
Ralph of Diceto, Ymagines, ii, p. 65; William of Newburgh, Historia, pp. 308–24; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, esp. pp. 71–4 and refs; generally, C. J. Tyerman, ‘Who went on Crusades to the Holy Land?’, Horns of Hattin, pp. 1–26. Such patterns of recruitment operated alongside the primary recruiting agency of lordship.
Peter of Blois, Passio Reginaldi principis olim Antiocheni, PL, 207, cols 957–76; M. Markowski, ‘Peter of Blois and the Conception of the Third Crusade’, Horns of Hattin, pp. 261–9; R. W. Southern, ‘Peter of Blois and the Third Crusade’, Studies in Medieval History presented to R. H. C. Davis, ed. H. Mayr-Harting and R. I. Moore (London 1985), pp. 207–18; cf. Riley-Smith’s comments, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research (1990), p. 233.
PL, 207, col. 974; cf. B. Hamilton, ‘The Elephant of Christ: Reynald of Châtillon’, Studies in Church History, 15, ed. D. Basker (Oxford 1978), pp. 97–108; for Saladin’s use of the nickname, Abou Chamah, Le Livre des deux Jardins, RHC Documents orientaux. iv. p. 233.
Bédier, Chansons de croisade, pp. 34 and 70 for two songs c. 1189 associated with the Third Crusade (and, more generally, pp. 67–73); cf. the tone of the slightly earlier Chanson d’Antioche, ed. S. Duparc-Quioc (Paris 1977–78); C. Morris, ‘Propaganda for War: The dissemination of the crusading ideal in the twelfth century’, Studies in Church History, 20, ed. W. Shiels (Oxford 1983), pp. 79–101; Ordinatio de predicatione S. Crucis in Angliae, Quinti belli scriptores, ed. R. Röhricht, ii, pp. 1–26; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 160–6 and refs;
P. Cole, The Preaching of the Crusades to the Holy Land 1095–1270 (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), esp. chs V-VII; above, pp. 62–74, 76–83.
Pipe Roll 1 Richard I, ed.J. Hunter (London 1844), p.20; Pipe Roll 3 Richard I, pp. 28, 33, 58, 76; cf. Markowski, ‘Crucesignatus’, passim.
Bédier, Chansons de croisade, p. 21 (1. 36 of Vos qui ameis de vraie amor) and p. 45 (verse III of Bien me Deusse Targier); Villehardouin, Conquete, p. 1(‘Tuit cil qui se croiseroient’); Robert of Clari, La Conquête de Constantinople, ed. P. Lauer (Paris 19241. p. 4 (croisiés).
La chanson de la croisade contre les Albigeois, ed. P. Meyer (Paris 1875–79), 11. 393, 409, 2450; above, pp. 49–55.
E.g. look at the English Ordinatio of 1216, passim above, n. 98, where there is only one First Crusade exemplum, and none about the period 1099–1187, or the exempla of Jacques de Vitry, G. Frenken, Die Exempla des Jacob von Vitry (Munich 1914), nos lxxii, xcvi and p. 149: the anecdote about Jocelin I of Edessa’s beard is hardly crusading, no. lxxi;
T. F. Crane, The Exempla of Jacques de Vitry, Folk Lore Society (London 1890), nos lxxxv, lxxxix, cxix, cxxii, clxiii, ccxi, cccxii; nos cxxiv and cxxi are timeless; only nos xxxvi and xc, both concerning Templars, are clearly about events pre-1187, perhaps an intentional comment on what Jacques saw as the Order’s decadence (no. xc). Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 163–5 and refs; Cole, Preaching of the Crusades, pp. 115, 123–5, 131–3, 195, 197–9;
F. C. Tubach, Index Exemplarum (Helsinki 1969), nos 238, 1041, 1043, 1044, 1390–5, 2497, 3087, 3088, 3802, 3804, 4005, 4114–17, 4538, 4722–4, 5199.
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Tyerman, C. (1998). Were There Any Crusades in the Twelfth Century?. In: The Invention of the Crusades. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-26541-1_2
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