Abstract
Writing in 1864 of the thinkers, poets, writers, historians, orators and philosophers of his time, Victor Hugo (1802–85), France’s most famous political exile, claimed that ‘tous, tous, tous dérivent de la Révolution française. Ils viennent d’elle, et d’elle seule’ [‘all of them, every single one, are products of the French Revolution. They come from it, and it alone’].1 Even allowing for the context — Hugo’s wish to restate his own Republican credentials and antagonise the government of the Second Empire (1852–70) whose amnesty he had refused in 1859 — his description of 1789 as the zero year of the modern age well reflected the extent to which literary and cultural developments in the nineteenth century issued from the need to come to terms with the legacy of the Revolution and with the extent and pace of change which the Revolution was seen to have inaugurated.2
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Notes
V. Hugo, William Shakespeare, in Oeuvres complètes, ed. Jean Massin, 18 vols (Paris: Le Club Français du Livre, 1967–9), vol. XII, pp. 306–7.
The title of Part II, ‘The Bourgeois Century’, is taken from Roger Magraw, France 1815–1914: The Bourgeois Century (London: Fontana Paperbacks, 1983).
See Hayden White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973);
Stephen Bann, The Clothing of Clio: A Study of the Representation of History in Nineteenth-Century Britain and France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984);
Ceri Crossley, French Historians and Romanticism (London and New York: Routledge, 1993).
Alfred de Vigny, Le Journal d’un poète in Oeuvres complètes, ed. F. Baldensperger, 2 vols (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1960), vol. II; Stendhal, Oeuvres complètes, ed. Victor del Litto, 50 vols (Geneva: Cercle du Bibliophile, 1970), vol. XXVII.
See D. G. Charlton (ed.), The French Romantics, 2 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), vol. I, p. 187.
See Henri-Jean Martin and Roger Chartier (eds), Histoire de l’édition française, 4 vols (Paris: Promodis, 1982–6), vol. II;
James Smith Allen, Popular French Romanticism: Authors, Readers and Books in the Nineteenth Century (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1981) and In the Public Eye. A History of Reading in Modern France (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
See François Furet and Jacques Ozouf, Lire et écrire: l’alphabétisation des Français de Calvin à Juils Ferry, 2 vols (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1977).
See Françoise Parent-Lardeur, Les Cabinets de lecture. La lecture publique à Paris sous la Restauration (Paris: Payot, 1982).
See Michael Moriarty, ‘Structures of Cultural Production in Nineteenth-Century France’, in Peter Collier and Robert Lethbridge (eds), Artistic Relations. Literature and the Visual Arts in Nineteenth-Century France (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1994), pp. 15–29 (p. 22).
See Lise Queffélec, Le Roman-feuilleton français au XIXe siècle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1989).
See F. W. J. Hemmings, The King of Romance: A Portrait of Alexandre Dumas (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1979).
See Jean-Louis Bory, Eugène Sue: le roi du roman populaire (Paris: Hachette, 1962); Europe, vol. lx, pp. 643–4 (November-December 1982);
Umberto Eco, The Role of the Reader. Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1979), pp. 125–43.
See Walter Benjamin, Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism (London: New Left Books, 1973); and Paris, capitale du XIXe siècle (Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1989);
Susan Buck-Morss, The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Project (Cambridge, Mass. and London: MIT Press, 1989);
Christopher Prendergast, Paris and the Nineteenth Century (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992);
T. J. Clark, The Painting of Modern Life. Paris in the Art of Manet and his Followers (London: Thames and Hudson, 1985);
Roger Bellet (ed.), Paris au XIXe siècle. Aspects d’un mythe littéraire (Lyons: Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1984).
See Louis Chevalier, La Formation de la population parisienne au XIXe siècle (Paris: Plon, 1950) and Classes laborieuses et classes dangereuses à Paris, pendant la première moitié du XIXe siècle (Paris: Plon, 1958);
Jeanne Gaillard, Paris, la ville 1852–1870 (Paris: Champion, 1977).
On Romanticism, see Charlton (ed.), The French Romantics. This work also contains full bibliographical information on every aspect of the Romantic movement. For an excellent short introduction published since Charlton’s work, see Stephen Bann, ‘Romanticism in France’, in Roy Porter and Mikulaš Teich, Romanticism in National Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 240–59.
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Ghislain de Diesbach, Madame de Staël (Paris: Perrin, 1983).
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Jean-Marie Roulin, Chateaubriand, l’exil et la gloire (Paris: Champion, 1994). On René see
Pierre Barbéris, ‘René’ de Chateaubriand: un nouveau roman (Paris: Larousse, 1973).
See David Hillery, Lamartine: The ‘Méditations Poétiques’ (Durham: University of Durham, 1993).
See Suzanne Bernard, Le Poème en prose de Baudelaire jusqu’ à nos jours (Paris: Nizet, 1959);
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Hilda Nelson, Charles Nodier (New York: Twayne, 1972);
Frank Paul Bowman, Mérimée: Heroism, Pessimism, and Irony (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961);
A. W. Raitt, Prosper Mérimée (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1970);
Maxwell A. Smith, Prosper Mérimée (New York: Twayne, 1972);
Peter Cogman, Mérimée: ‘Colomba’ and ‘Carmen’ (London: Grant and Cutler, 1992).
See Tzvetan Todorov, Introduction à la littérature fantastique (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1970). For an attack on this approach to the fantastic text, see the important preface by Michel Crouzet to his edition of
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Alain Borer et al., Pour une littérature voyageuse (Paris: Éditions Complexe, 1992).
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Annie Ubersfeld, Le Roi et le bouffon. Étude sur le théâtre de Hugo de 1830 à 1839 (Paris: José Corti, 1974);
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Charles Affron, A Stage for Poets: Studies in the Theatre of Hugo and Musset (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971);
Eric L. Gans, Musset et le drame tragique (Paris: José Corti, 1974);
Bernard Masson, Musset et le théâtre intérieur (Paris: Armand Colin, 1974);
David Sices, Theatre of Solitude. The Drama of Alfred de Musset (New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1974);
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On Constant, see John Cruickshank, Benjamin Constant (New York: Twayne, 1974);
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Pierre Flottes, Vigny et sa fortune littéraire (Bordeaux: Ducros, 1970);
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Victor Brombert, Victor Hugo and the Visionary Novel (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984);
Kathryn M. Grossman, The Early Novels of Victor Hugo (Geneva: Droz, 1986);
Rachel Killick, Hugo: ‘Notre-Dame de Paris’ (Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 1994).
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Neil McWilliam, Dreams of Happiness: Social Art and the French Left, 1830–1850 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
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Herbert J. Hunt, Balzac’s Comédie Humaine (London: Athlone Press, 1959);
Harry Levin, The Gates of Horn. A Study of Five French Realists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966);
Pierre Barbéris, Balzac: une mythologie réaliste (Paris: Larousse, 1971);
George Lukács, Studies in European Realism (London: Merlin Press, 1972);
Christopher Prendergast, The Order of Mimesis. Balzac, Stendhal, Nerval, Flaubert (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986);
Victor Brombert, The Hidden Reader. Stendhal, Balzac, Hugo, Baudelaire, Flaubert (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1988);
Graham Robb, Balzac. A Biography (London: Picador, 1994).
See Anthony R. Pugh, Balzac’s Recurring Characters (London: Duckworth, 1975);
David Bellos, Balzac: ‘Old Goriot’ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
See F. W. J. Hemmings, Stendhal. A Study of his Novels (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964);
Michel Crouzet, Stendhal et le langage (Paris: Gallimard, 1981) and Stendhal et l’italianité (Paris: José Corti, 1982);
Michel Guérin, La Politique de Stendhal (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1982);
Ann Jefferson, Reading Realism in Stendhal (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Prendergast, The Order of Mimesis, pp. 119–47.
See Victor Brombert, The Romantic Prison (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978);
C. W. Thompson, Le Jeu de l’ordre et de la liberté dans ‘La Chartreuse de Parme’ (Aran: Éditions du Grand Chêne, 1982);
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Joseph Savalle, Travestis, métamorphoses, dédoublements: essai sur l’œuvre romanesque de Théophile Gautier (Paris: Minard, 1981).
See Curtis Cate, George Sand: A Biography (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1975);
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See Claire Goldberg Moses, French Feminism in the 19th Century (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984).
See Sandra Dijkstra, Flora Tristan: Feminism in the Age of George Sand (London: Pluto Press, 1992).
See Margaret Gilman, The Idea of Poetry in France from Houdar de la Motte to Baudelaire (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958);
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Keith Aspley and Peter France (eds), Poetry in France: Metamorphoses of a Muse (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992);
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See Édouard Guitton, Jacques Delille et le poème de la nature en France de 1750 à 1820 (Paris: Klincksieck, 1974);
Will Munsters, La Poétique du pittoresque en France de 1700 à 1830 (Geneva and Paris: Droz, 1991).
See Francis Scarfe, André Chénier: His Life and Work, 1762–1794 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965);
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See Barbara Johnson, ‘Gender and Poetry: Charles Baudelaire and Marceline Desbordes-Valmore’, in Joan DeJean and Nancy K. Miller, Displacements: Women, Traditions, Literatures in French, pp. 163–81; Michael Danahy, ‘Marceline Desbordes-Valmore and the Engendered Canon’, Yale French Studies, 75 (1988), pp. 129–47;
Laurence M. Porter, ‘Poetess or Strong Poet? Gender Stereotypes and the Elegies of Marceline Desbordes-Valmore’, French Forum, 18, 2 (May 1993), pp. 94–185.
See François Germain, L’Imagination d’Alfred de Vigny (Paris: José Corti, 1961).
See Pierre Albouy, La Création mythologique chez Victor Hugo (Paris: José Corti, 1963);
Alfred Glauser, La Poétique de Hugo (Paris: Nizet, 1978).
See A. G. Lehmann, Sainte-Beuve. A Portrait of the Critic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962);
Norman H. Barlow, Sainte-Beuve to Baudelaire. A Poetic Legacy (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1964);
José Cabanis, Pour Sainte-Beuve (Paris: Gallimard, 1987).
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See Alain Pessin, Le Mythe du peuple et la société française au XIXe siècle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992).
See Lawrence Watson, ‘Rimbaud and Auguste Barbier’, French Studies Bulletin, 23 (Summer 1987), pp. 12–14.
See Lloyd Bishop, The Poetry of Alfred de Musset: Styles and Genres (New York: Peter Lang, 1987).
See P. E. Tennant, Théophile Gautier (London: Athlone Press, 1975);
Constance Gosselin Schick, Seductive Resistance: The Poetry of Théophile Gautier (Amsterdam and Atlanta: Rodopi, 1994).
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© 1997 Jennifer Birkett and James Kearns
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Birkett, J., Kearns, J. (1997). Restoration to Revolution, 1815–48. In: A Guide to French Literature. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-25758-4_5
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