Abstract
In 1960, as the process of globalisation began to move into historical high gear, seventeen new members entered the not coincidentally named United Nations Organisation.1 Reflecting on the worldwide process of decolonisation unfolding around him, the Harvard professor Rupert Emerson in the same year dubbed the nation the ‘terminal community’; nationhood was the locus of group identity and solidarity that invariably prevailed ‘when the chips are down’.2 In the world of 1960 the nationality principle did generally rank above, and override, alternative potential constructions of collective identity, e.g., in terms of smaller-scale locality, larger-scale region, religious faith, class, race, gender, sexual orientation, age and so on. These other touchstones of self-other relations also operated thirty-five years ago, and indeed often affected the particular shape and direction of a given national project. However, for the most part they were decidedly subordinate to that primary framework of ‘us-ness’, the nation. Thus women’s movements, ethnic associations, labour movements and religious campaigns were generally organised on national lines and usually rallied to ‘the national interest’, while generation politics and open collective expressions of lesbian and gay identities rarely surfaced at all. In 1960, forging group solidarity in the world system normally entailed, above anything else, identifying a territorial homeland and emphasising the national distinctiveness that was associated with that country.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Notes
R. Emerson, From Empire to Nation: The Rise to Self-Assertion of Asian and African Peoples (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1962 [1960]), pp. 95–6.
See further W. Connor, ‘Terminological Chaos: A Nation Is a Nation, Is a State, Is an Ethnic Group, Is a…’, in Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 89–117.
J.P. Arnason, ‘Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity’, in M. Featherstone (ed.), Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity (London, Sage, 1990), p. 220.
R. Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics (New York, Scribner, 1932), p. 83.
Cf. A.E. Zimmern, Nationality and Government, With Other War-Time Essays (London, Chatto and Windus, 1919)
A. Cobban, National Self-Determination (London, Oxford University Press, 1945)
and K.W. Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Nationality (New York, Wiley, 1953)
E.g., W.E.B. DuBois, Color and Democracy: Colonies and Peace (New York, Harcourt Brace, 1945).
Cf. J.A. Armstrong, Nations before Nationalism (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1982)
and A.D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford, Blackwell, 1986)
E. J. Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France 1870–1914 (London, Chatto & Windus, 1977).
E.g., C.J.H. Hayes, The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism (London, Macmillan, 1931)
J. Breuilly, Nationalism and the State (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1982)
E. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford, Blackwell, 1983)
G.L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality: Middle-Class Morality and Sexual Norms in Modern Europe (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1985)
B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, Verso, 1991 rev’d edn)
and I. Grewel, and C. Kaplan (eds), Scattered Hegemonies: Postmodernity and Transnational Feminist Practices (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1994)
I have developed the following theoretical points in empirical studies of Dutch and Indonesian nationhood: in ‘Nederland als object van een globale sociale geschiedschrijving’, in D.A. Hellema et al. (eds), Buiten-landse Zaken: Jaarboek voor de geschiedenis van de Nederlandse buitenlandse politiek 1994 (The Hague, SDU Uitgeverij, 1994), pp. 97–110
and ‘The International Construction of Indonesian Nationhood, 1930–1950’, in H. Antlöv and S. Tönnesson (eds), Imperial Policy and Southeast Asian Nationalism 1930–1957 (London, Curzon, 1995), pp. 191–226.
J.E.E.D. Acton, ‘Nationality’ [1862], in Essays on Freedom and Power (London, Thames & Hudson, 1956), p. 156.
R. Jones, ‘Earl, Logan and “Indonesia”’, Archipel, no. 6 (1973), pp. 93–118.
M. Howard, ‘War and the Nation-State’, Daedalus (Fall 1979), p. 102 (his emphasis).
S. Brucan, The Dialectic of World Politics (New York, Free Press, 1978), p. 20.
J. Der Derian, Antidiplomacy: Spies, Terror, Speed, and War (Oxford, Blackwell, 1992), p. 94.
I have treated these issues at greater length in ‘Beyond the Buzzword: Towards a Critical Theory of Globalisation’, in E. Kofman and G. Youngs (eds), Globalization: Theory and Practice (London, Pinter, 1996)
R.E. Carpente and M. McLuhan (eds), Explorations in Communication (Boston, MA, Beacon, 1960), p. xi
and M. McLuhan, and Q. Fiore, The Medium is the Massage (London, Allen Lane, 1967), p. 63
M. Castells, The Informational City: Information Technology, Economic Restructuring and the Urban-Regional Process (Oxford, Blackwell, 1989), p. 348
J. Meyrowitz, No Sense of Place: The Impact of Electronic Media on Social Behavior (New York, Oxford University Press, 1985), p. ix
M. Benedikt (ed.), Cyberspace: First Steps (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1991), p. 1.
E. Jameson, ‘Postmodernism, Or the Culture of Late Capitalism’, New Left Review, No. 146 (July/August 1984), p. 83
A. Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1990), p. 64
J.G. Ruggie, ‘Territoriality and Beyond: Problematizing Modernity in International Relations’, International Organization, 47 (Winter 1993), p. 172
K. Marx, Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1973 [1857–8]), pp, 524, 539.
and O.L. Reiser and B. Davies, Planetary Democracy: Anlntro-duction to Scientific Humanism and Applied Semantics (New York, Creative Age Press, 1944), pp. 212, 219
M. Heidegger, ‘The Thing’ [1950], in Poetry, Language, Thought (New York, Harper and Row, 1971), pp. 165–6.
W.L. Willkie, One World (London, Cassell, 1943).
D. Massey, ‘A Global Sense of Place’, Marxism Today, 35 (June 1991), p. 24.
E. Mlinar, ‘Introduction’, in Mlinar (ed.), Globalization and Territorial Identities (Aldershot, Avebury, 1992), p. 1 (his emphases).
A.D. King (ed.), Culture, Globalization and the World-System: Contemporary Conditions for the Representation of Identity (Basingstoke, Macmillan 1991)
M. Keith and S. Pile (eds), Place and the Politics of Identity (London, Routledge, 1993)
and J. Friedman, Cultural Identity and Global Process (London, Sage, 1994)
M. Zalewski and C. Enloe, ‘Questions about Identity’ in K. Booth and S. Smith (eds), International Relations Theory Today (Cambridge, Polity, 1995), pp. 279–305.
H. J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York, Knopf, 1948).
Eg., R.O. Keohane and J.S. Nye (eds), Transnational Relations and World Politics (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1972).
Cf. W.E. Moore, ‘Global Sociology: The World as a Singular System’, American Journal of Sociology 71 (March 1966), pp. 475–82
and E. Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (London, Hamish Hamilton, 1992)
Cf. A. Pennycook, The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language (Harlow, Longman, 1994).
C. Rubenstein, ‘The Flying Silver Message Stick: Update 1985–86 on Long Songs Collected 1971–74’, Sarawak Museum Journal, 42, No. 63 (new series) (1991), pp. 61–157.
R.W. Cox, ‘Multilateralism and the Democratization of World Order’. Paper for the International Symposium on Sources of Innovation in Multilateralism, Lausanne, 26–28 May 1994, p. 15.
Cf. A. Appadurai, ‘Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy’, Public Culture, 2 (Spring 1990), pp. 1–24
and U. Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning (New York, Columbia University Press, 1992), ch. 7
Cited in P. Beyer, Religion and Globalization (London, Sage, 1994), p. 28 (Robertson’s emphasis).
Cf. J. Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction (London, Pinter, 1991).
D. Webster, ‘Coca-Colonization and National Cultures’, Overhere, 9, no. 2 (1989), p. 73
and ‘Nike Inc.: A Global Company’ (Beaverton, Nike, 1993), p. 13.
L. Abu-Lughod, ‘Bedouins, Cassettes and Technologies of Public Culture’, Middle East Report, No. 159 (July–August 1989), pp. 7–11
T. Dowmunt, ‘Introduction’, in Dowmunt (ed.), Channels of Resistance: Global Television and Local Empowerment (London, BFI/Channel 4,1993), pp. 8–9
See inter alia F. Wilmer, The Indigenous Voice in World Politics: Since Time Immemorial (London, Sage, 1993).
UNPO, The First Three Years 1991–1994 (The Hague, Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, 1995).
R. Boele, Ogoni: Report of the UNPO Mission to Investigate the Situation of the Ogoni of Nigeria February 17–26, 1995 (The Hague, Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, 1 May 1995)
and T. Swithinbank, ‘Tribal Leader Faces the Death Penalty in Nigeria’, The Big Issue, No. 130 (15–21 May 1995), pp. 8, 10.
See inter alia A. D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981)
M. Watson (ed.), Contemporary Minority Nationalism (London, Routledge, 1990)
and M. H. Halperin and D. J. Scheffer, Self Determination in the New World Order (Washington, DC, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992)
B. Nietschmann, ‘The Fourth World: Nations versus States’, in G.J. Demko and W.B. Wood (eds), Reordering the World: Geopolitical Perspectives on the Twenty-First Century (Boulder, Westview, 1994), pp. 227, 234
and J. Saurin, ‘The End of International Relations? The State and International Theory in the Age of Globalisation’, in J. MacMillan and A. Linklater (eds), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London, Pinter, 1995), p. 247
T.R. Gurr, ‘Peoples against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System’, International Studies Quarterly 38 (September 1994), p. 350.
See J. A. Agnew, Place and Politics: The Geographical Mediation of State and Society (Boston, MA, Allen and Unwin, 1987)
and E.A. Swyngedouw, ‘The Heart of the Place: The Resurrection of Locality in an Age of Hyper-space’, Geografiska Annaler, 71B (1989), pp. 31–42.
D. Harvey, ‘From Space to Place and Back Again: Reflections on the Condition of Postmodernity’, in J. Bird et al. (eds), Mapping the Futures: Local Cultures, Global Change (London, Routledge, 1993), p. 4.
S.G. Jones (ed.), CyberSociety: Computer-Mediated Communication and Community (London, Sage, 1994).
M.E. Marty and R.S. Appleby (eds), Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1991)
and R. Robertson and W.R. Garrett (eds), Religion and Global Order (New York, Paragon House, 1991).
B.B. Lawrence, Defenders of God: The Fundamentalist Revolt against the Modern Age (New York, Harper & Row, 1989).
J. Simpson, Behind Iranian Lines (London, Fontana, 1989 [1988]), pp. 29–30
and M.J. Landau, The Politics of Pan-Islam: Ideology and Organization (Oxford, Clarendon, 1990), pp. 259–60
J. Esposito (ed.), The Iranian Revolution: Its Global Impact (Miami, Florida International University Press, 1990).
M. Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1993), p. 5.
S.P. Huntington, ‘The Clash of Civilizations?’ Foreign Affairs, 72 (Summer 1993), pp. 22–49.
L.L. Lorwin, The International Labor Movement: History, Policies, Outlook (New York, Harper and Brothers, 1953)
and E.H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1923, Volume 3 (London, Macmillan, 1953)
J. Brecher, and T. Costello, Global Village or Global Pillage: Economic Reconstruction from the Bottom Up (Boston, MA: South End, 1994), chs 5–8.
S. Strange, States and Markets (London, Pinter, 1994 2nd edn), p. 138.
Cf. K. van der Pijl, ‘The International Level’, in T. B. Bottomore (ed.), The Capitalist Class: An International Study (New York, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), pp. 237–66
and S. Gill, ‘Structural Changes in Multilateralism: The G7 Nexus and the Global Crisis’. Paper for the International Symposium on Sources of Innovation in Multilateralism, Lausanne, 26–28 May 1994.
D. Churchill, ‘Better Business Options’, Business Life (March 1995), p. 28.
K. Kautsky, ‘Ultra-Imperialism’ [1914], New Left Review, no. 59 (January–February 1970), pp. 45–6.
Cf. W.H. McNeill, The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community (Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1963)
and M. Bernal, Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (London, Free Association Books, 1987).
Cf. J.W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, Pantheon, 1986).
A. Whittick, Woman into Citizen: The World Movement Towards the Emancipation of Women in the Twentieth Century (London, Athenaeum, 1979), ch. 2.
C. Bulbeck, One World Women’s Movement (London, Pluto, 1988), p. 119.
V. Woolf, Three Guineas (London, Hogarth, 1938), p. 197.
H. Pietilä and J. Vickers, Making Women Matter: The Role of the United Nations (London, Zed, 1994 rev’d edn).
V.S. Peterson and A.S. Runyan, Global Gender Issues (Boulder, Westview, 1993).
D. Stienstra, Women’s Movements and International Organizations (Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1994).
J. Fornäs, and G. Bolin (eds), Youth Culture in Late Modernity (London, Sage, 1995).
C. Sturmer, ‘MTV’s Europe’, in Dowmunt, Channels of Resistance, pp. 51–2.
J. Gough and M. Macnair, Gay Liberation in the Eighties (London, Pluto, 1985)
B.D. Adam, The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement (Boston, MA: Twayne, 1987)
M. Cruickshank, The Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement (London: Routledge, 1992)
and M. Warner (ed.), Fear of a Queer Planet-Queer Politics and Social Theory (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1993)
P. Flowers, ‘My Sexuality Is Me’, in E. Healey and A. Mason (eds), Stone-wall 25: The Making of the Lesbian and Gay Community in Britain (London, Virago, 1994), p. 26
and K. King, ‘Local and Global: AIDS Activism and Feminist Theory’, Camera Obscura, 28 (January 1992), p. 85
P. Tatchell, Europe in the Pink: Lesbian & Gay Equality in the New Europe (London, GMP, 1992), p. 70
and Yearbook of International Organizations 1993/1994. Volume I (Munich, Saur, 1993), p. 1008.
J.H.H. Weiler, ‘European Union: Democracy without a Demos?’ (Brighton, Sussex Papers in International Relations, 1995).
Cf. B. Anderson, Long-Distance Nationalism: World Capitalism and the Rise of Identity Politics (Amsterdam, Centre for Asian Studies Amsterdam, 1992).
R. Brown, ‘Globalization and the End of the National Project’, in J. Mac-Millan and A. Linklater (eds), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London, Pinter, 1995), pp. 54–68.
E.W. Ploman, Space, Earth and Communication (Westport, CT, Quorum, 1984), pp. 102–3, 121.
R. Jenkins, Transnational Corporations and Underdevelopment: The Internationalization of Capital and the Third World (London, Methuen, 1987), pp 178–80.
T. Walker, ‘World in a Box’, Financial Times, 22 December 1994, p. 12
and D. Webster, ‘Direct Broadcast Satellites: Proximity, Sovereignty and National Identity’, Foreign Affairs, 62 (Summer 1984), p. 1172
Cf. G. Ford, Fascist Europe: The Rise of Racism and Xenophobia (London, Pluto, 1992).
L.L. Snyder, Global Mininationalisms: Autonomy or Independence (Westport, CT, Greenwood, 1982).
Cf. J. Kristeva, ‘Open Letter to Harlem Désir’ [1990], in Nations without Nationalism (New York, Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 50.
E. Jameson, Postmodernism, Or, the Culture of Late Capitalism (London, Verso, 1991), p. 322.
J.N. Rosenau, Turbulence in World Politics: A Theory of Change and Continuity (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1990)
L. Brock, ‘Im Umbruch der Weltpolitik’, Leviathan, 21, no. 2 (1993), p. 170.
Some of the most thoughtful explorations of this problem have been undertaken by Andrew Linklater, e.g., in ‘Community, Citizenship and Global Politics’, Oxford International Review, 4 (Winter 1993), pp. 4–7.
Cf. C. Taylor, et al., Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994 rev’d edn).
M. Dillon, ‘Asylum-Seeker and Stranger’. Paper delivered at the Annual Convention of the International Studies Association, Chicago, 21–25 February 1995
and J. Gallop, Feminism and Psychoanalysis: The Daughters Seduction (London, Macmillan, 1982), p. xii
Cf A. Touraine, ‘Democracy: From a Politics of Citizenship to a Politics of Recognition’, in L. Lmaheu (ed.), Social Movements and Social Classes: New Actors and New Agendas (London, Sage, 1995).
Cf. F. Braudel, A History of Civilizations (London, Penguin, 1994 [1963])
Cf. R.W. Cox, ‘Civilizations: Encounters and Transformations’, typescript of a lecture at York University, Toronto, 10 November 1994, p. 32 (his emphasis).
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 1996 Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Scholte, J.A. (1996). Globalisation and Collective Identities. In: Krause, J., Renwick, N. (eds) Identities in International Relations. St Antony’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-25194-0_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-25194-0_3
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-0-333-69384-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-349-25194-0
eBook Packages: Palgrave Political & Intern. Studies CollectionPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)