Abstract
The first three chapters provide grounding in the evolution of peacekeeping. The information presented was essentially descriptive. As was noted, peacekeeping is, at present, an ad hoc response to international conflict and as such has little or no conceptual basis. The purpose of the next three chapters is to develop a conceptual framework for peacekeeping. In order to begin this process, it is necessary to examine the general theoretical foundations of the fields of international relations and conflict management. It is from this background that third party intervention strategies and contingency approaches have emerged. And it is upon these two theoretical domains that a conceptual framework for peacekeeping will be built. While the present chapter will focus on reviewing broad academic areas, Chapters 5 and 6 will focus on bringing together this conceptual material with the descriptive information provided in the first three chapters. Through analysis of these two areas, a theory of peacekeeping will be developed.
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Notes and References
For a more detailed discussion of these perspectives see: Pearson and Rochester, 1992; Smith et al., 1981; Light and Groom, 1985; Klare and Thomas, 1991; Banks, 1984; Gaddis, 1993.
H. Morganthau (1948), Politics Among Nations, New York: Knopf. Politics Among Nations has been through six editions, the last one published in 1985 following Morganthau’s death. See also, Waltz, 1959, 1979.
Examples of neo-realist perspectives: Small and Singer, 1979; Keohane, 1986.
Gaddis, 1993, offers an interesting discussion on the predictive capability of international relations theory given the end of the Cold War.
R. Falk (1991), ‘Theory, realism and world security’, in Klare and Thomas, p. 22; see also, Banks, in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990; Tickner, 1992.
A.J.R. Groom (1990), ‘Paradigms in conflict: the strategist, the conflict researcher and the peace researcher’, in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, p. 76.
See Falk, Kim and Mendolvitz, 1982; Walker, 1988; Miller, 1990; Soroos, 1986.
Groom, in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990, p. 76.
See Burton and Sandole, 1986; Burton, 1984; Burton, Vol. 1, 1990.
Falk, in Klare and Thomas, 1991, p. 23.
For more on ‘transformation’ see Vayrynen, in Vayrynen, 1991; Falk et al., 1991.
N. Young (1987), ‘The peace movement, peace research, peace education and peace building’, Bulletin of Peace Proposals, 18(3):334.
P. Wallensteen (1988), ‘The origins of peace research’, in P. Wallensteen (ed.), Peace Research: Achievements and Challenges, Boulder, CO: Westview, p. 10.
Young, 1987, p. 335.
Young, 1987, pp. 336–7.
Galtung, Vol. 1, 1975.
A. Rapoport (1982), ‘Various conceptions of peace research’, in G. Pardesi (ed.), Contemporary Peace Research Brighton: Harvester, p. 43.
Galtung, Vol. 1, 1975, p. 256.
For an interesting discussion of the ‘structuralist’/‘evolutionist’ debate within the field, see Boulding, 1977.
Galtung, Vol. 1, 1975, p. 29.
A. Curle (1971), Making Peace, London: Tavistock, p. 1.
Curle, 1990, outlines Curle’s approach to peace research and to creating positively peaceful societies.
Galtung, Vol. 1, 1975, p. 29.
Galtung, Vol. 1, 1975, p. 111.
J. Galtung (1985), ‘Twenty-five years of peace research’, Journal of Peace Research, 22(2):145.
A. Curle (1990), Tools for Transfortnation: A Personal Study, Stroud, UK: Hawthorne Press, p. 22–3.
K. Boulding (1987), ‘Peace and the evolutionary process’, in R. Vayrynen (ed.), The Quest for Peace, London: Sage, p. 52.
Burton, Vol. 1, 1990, pp. 36–48.
For more detailed discussion of human needs theory, see Burton, 1979; Burton, Vol. 2, 1990; Sites, 1973.
G. Sorensen (1992), ‘Utopianism in peace research: the Gandhian heritage’, Journal of Peace Research, 29 (2):135–44, provides an interesting discussion of contradictions inherent in different conceptions of peace. Of particular relevance to this discussion is his critique of Galtung’s definition of violence as it is embedded in human needs theory, pp. 136–8.
K. Avruch and P.W. Black (1987), ‘A generic theory of conflict resolution: a critique’, Negotiation Journal 3(1):87–96.
Avruch and Black, 1987, p. 91.
This refers to attempts to resolve conflicts through the application of problem-solving workshops or consultancy approaches. See Rothman, 1992; R.J. Fisher, 1983, 1990; Hill, 1982; Burton, 1969; Doob, 1970; Cohen et al., 1977.
Groom, in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990, p. 96.
Burton, Vol. 1, 1990, p. 3, defines provention as, ‘deducing from an adequate explanation of the phenomenon of conflict, including its human dimensions, not merely the conditions that create an environment of conflict, and the structural changes required to remove it, but more importantly, the promotion of conditions that create cooperative relationships.’
See Soroos, 1990a.
Some examples of work on the causes of conflict are, Cashman, 1993; R.J. Fisher, 1990; Waltz, 1959; Small and Singer, 1989; Gurr, 1993; Horowitz, 1985; Burton, 1984; Mitchell, 1981b.
M. Deutsch (1991), ‘Subjective features of conflict resolution: psychological, social and cultural influences’, in Vayrynen, p. 31.
Burton, Vol. 1, 1990, p. 2.
Burton, Vol. 1, 1990, p. 2.
E.E. Azar (1990), The Management of Protracted Social Conflict: Theory and Cases, Aldershot, U.K.: Dartmouth, especially pp. 1–17.
Azar, 1990, p. 12.
Azar, 1990, p. 2.
Mitchell, 1981b, p. 16 shows the model. Explanation of the three parts of the model follows, pp. 19–34.
Mitchell, 1981b, p. 29
Mitchell, 1981b, pp. 47–68.
Deutsch, in Vayrynen, 1991, p. 27.
F. Glasl (1982), ‘The process of conflict escalation and roles of third parties’, in G.B.J. Bomers and R.B. Peterson (eds), Conflict Management and Industrial Relations, Boston: Kluwer Nijhoff, p. 122.
H. Eckstein (1980), ‘Theoretical approaches to explaining collective political violence’, in T.R. Gurr (ed.), Handbook of Political Conflict: Theory and Research, New York: Free Press, p. 138.
J.W. Burton (1972c), World Society, London: Cambridge University Press, pp. 137–8.
Eckstein, in Gurr, 1980, p. 139.
Banks, in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990, p. 56.
Banks, in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990, p. 68.
For an excellent discussion of this debate see C. Mitchell (1991), ‘Recognising conflict’, in T. Woodhouse (ed.), Peacemaking in a Troubled World, New York: Berg, pp. 209–25.
C. Mitchell (1981a), Peacemaking and the Consultant’s Role, Westmead: Gower, p. 22.
C. Mitchell (1973), ‘Conflict resolution and controlled communication: some further comments’, Journal of Peace Research, 10:128.
Mitchell, 1981a, p. 31.
Burton, 1972c, p. 149.
Mitchell, 1981b, pp. 15–34.
Fisher, 1990, pp. 234–8.
Deutsch, in Vayrynen, 1991, p. 28.
J. Bercovitch (1986), ‘International mediation: a study of the incidence, strategies and conditions of successful outcomes’, Cooperation and Conflict, 21:155.
J. Bercovitch, J.T Anagnoson and D.L. Willie (1991), ‘Some conceptual issues and empirical trends in the study of successful mediation in international relations’, Journal of Peace Research, 28(1):7.
Mitchell, 1981b, p. 278.
Conflict management will be used here as a generic term to encompass all types of strategies employed to reduce or end conflict.
J.W. Burton (1987), Resolving Deep-Rooted Conflict: A Handbook, Lanham MD: University Press of America, p. 21.
Azar, 1990, pp. 1–17.
Mitchell, 1981b, p. 253.
Burton, Vol. 1, 1990, p. 3.
J. Laue (1990), ‘The emergence and institutionalization of third-party roles in conflict’, in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, p. 258.
Laue, in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990, p. 258.
See note 33 for references on problem-solving.
A discussion of the development of the field of conflict intervention is offered by Laue, in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3., 1990. Laue describes the influences, roles, expectations of this emerging field.
Mitchell, 1981b, pp. 274–5.
Laue, in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990, p. 260.
Laue, in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990, pp. 260–1.
This point is discussed more fully by Burton, Vol. 1, 1990, pp. 188–210, especially the model used to distinguish between third party roles, pp. 196–7.
Bercovitch et al., 1991, p. 8.
Bercovitch et al., 1991, p. 8.
R. Fisher and L. Keashly (1991), ‘The potential complementarity of mediation and consultation within a contingency model of third party intervention’, Journal of Peace Research, 28(1):30.
For a general overview of mediation see Wall and Lynn, 1993; Wall, 1981; Fisher and Keashly, 1988; Bercovitch, 1991, 1992; Bercovitch and Lamare, 1993.
See note 33 for references on consultancy (problem-solving).
Fisher and Keashly, 1991, p. 30.
Wehr, 1979, p. 45.
van der Merwe et al., in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990, p. 233.
Burton, 1987b, p. 7.
For further discussion of negotiation, see Pruitt and Carnavale, 1993; Druckman, Kidd and Saks, Vol. 2, 1983; Druckman, 1993; Kriesberg, 1988; Saunders, 1985; Stein, 1989c; Touval, 1989; Rubin, 1989.
G. Tillett (1991), Resolving Conflict: A Practical Approach, Sydney/Melbourne: Sydney University Press/Oxford University Press Australia, p. 45.
van der Merwe et al., in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990, p. 218.
R. Fisher and W. Ury (1981), Getting to Yes: How To Negotiate to Agreement Without Giving In, London: Arrow.
van der Merwe et al., in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990, p. 224.
Fisher and Keashly, 1991, p. 33.
A useful discussion of conciliatory gestures is offered in Mitchell, 1991.
Deutsch, in Vayrynen, 1991, p. 49.
Deutsch, in Vayrynen, 1991, p. 49.
Wehr, 1979, pp. 50–52.
C. Honeyman (1988), ‘Five elements of mediation’, Negotiation Journal, 4(2):152–55.
N. Katz and J. Lawyer (1985), Communication and Conflict Resolution Skills, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, pp. 11–12.
Katz and Lawyer, 1985, pp. vii–ix.
Burton and Dukes, Vol. 4, 1990, pp. 187–8.
The field of peace research, in particular, has focused on this problem and there have been numerous approaches and positions put forward. For a range of arguments see Boulding, Brigagao and Clements, 1991; Curle, 1990; Dumas and Thee, 1989.
See Avruch, Black and Scimecca, 1991; Wehr and Lederach, 1991.
M.H. Ross (1992), ‘The language of success and failure in ethnic conflict management’, paper prepared for the First International Conference of the Ethnic Studies Network, Northern Ireland, 8–10June 1992, pp. 6–7.
The main arguments of this framework are summarized in J. Laue (1982), ‘Ethical considerations in choosing intervention roles’, Peace and Change, 8(2/3):29–41.
Laue, 1982, pp. 35–6.
Wehr, 1979, p. 50.
Burton, Vol. 1, 1990, p. 159.
Burton, Vol. 1, 1990, p. 160.
Burton, Vol. 1, 1990, p. 160.
N. Lewer and O. Ramsbotham (1993), ‘Something must be done: towards and ethical framework for humanitarian intervention in international social conflict’, Peace Research Report, No. 33, Bradford, UK: Department of Peace Studies, University of Bradford, p. 98.
See Prein, 1984; Bercovitch et al., 1991; Haas, 1986.
See Bercovitch et al., 1991. This paper provides a good example of analysis of third party intervention yielding empirical evidence which is then applied to a contingency model.
See Wehr and Lederach, 1991. This is a good example of a case-study approach which could yield useful evidence for a contingency model. Examples of the data-set approach can be found in Bercovitch et al., 1991, and Miall, 1992.
Bercovitch et al., 1991, p. 9.
Gaddis, 1993, p. 58.
For example Haas, 1987, did a very similar study to that of Bercovitch et al., 1991, covering a very similar data set, and came up with somewhat different conclusions. Based on his results, Haas suggests that mediation is more successful in intense, violent conflicts, while relatively unsuccessful in relatively less intense ones. Bercovitch et al., on the other hand, find the opposite to be the case. They argue that mediation is more successful if a conflict has not escalated into violence.
Prein, 1984, p. 82.
Laue, 1982, p. 35.
The results of Prein’s 1984 study seem to indicate that such an approach is valid. His research suggests that process or contingency approaches offer a general strategy combined with other approaches operating at a more specific level, p. 100.
Q. Wright (1965), ‘The escalation of international conflicts’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 4(4):434–5.
Glasl, in Bomers and Peterson, 1982, pp. 119–40.
Fisher and Keashly, 1991, pp. 35–9.
For a further explanation of this approach and its development, and the theory behind it, see R.J. Fisher, 1990; Fisher and Keashly, 1988.
See Glasl, in Bomers and Peterson, 1982.
Fisher and Keashly, 1991, p. 42.
Rothman, 1989, p. 274.
W. L. Ury (1987), ‘Strengthening international mediation’, Negotiation Journal, 3(3): 226–7.
van der Merwe et al., in Burton and Dukes, Vol. 3, 1990, p. 232.
Mitchell, 1981b, p. 279.
Azar, 1990, p. 127.
Azar, 1990, p. 127.
Bercovitch et al., 1991, pp. 7–17.
Wehr and Lederach, 1991.
See Wehr and Lederach, 1991.
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Fetherston, A.B. (1994). Outlining a Theoretical Approach. In: Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-23642-8_4
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