Skip to main content
  • 45 Accesses

Abstract

The nineteenth century was Britain’s century. Her imperial and economic power increased as never before, and she appeared to be the most successful state in the world. Although Britain experienced fundamental socio-economic changes, which brought considerable dislocation and hardship, she did so without revolution or sustained social disorder. Although the failure to integrate Ireland successfully into Britain, and its future, were serious problems, the nineteenth century was the first in which ‘the British problem’ did not lead to war or insurrection. The ‘economic advantages’ of Union were too ‘great and obvious’ for many Scots ‘to doubt its political desirability’.1

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Notes

  1. K. G. Robbins, Nineteenth-Century Britain. England, Scotland and Wales: The Making of a Nation (Oxford, 1988); R. H. Campbell, ‘The Victorian Transformation’, in Mitchison (ed.), Why Scottish History Matters, p. 76.

    Google Scholar 

  2. The most recent account is O’Brien and R. Quinault (eds), The Industrial Revolution and British Society (Cambridge, 1993).

    Google Scholar 

  3. A. Kahan, The Plow, the Hammer, and the Knout: An Economic History of Eighteenth-Century Russia (Chicago, 1985); P. Clendenning, ‘The Economic Awakening of Russia in the Eighteenth Century’, Journal of European Economic History (1985).

    Google Scholar 

  4. H. Freudenberger, ‘Industrialisation in Bohemia and Moravia in the Eighteenth Century’ , Journal of Central European Affairs, 19 (1960) pp. 347–56, and ‘An Industrial Momentum Achieved in the Habsburg Monarchy’, Journal of European Economic History, 12 (1983) pp. 339–50;

    Google Scholar 

  5. J. Komlos, Nutrition and Economic Development in the Eighteenth-Century Habsburg Monarchy: An Anthropometric History (Princeton, 1989) pp. 167–73;

    Google Scholar 

  6. J. K. J. Thomson, A Distinct Industrialization: Cotton in Barcelona, 1728–1832 (Cambridge, 1992).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  7. F. Crouzet, ‘Angleterre et France au XVIIIe siècle: essai d’analyse comparée de deux croissances économiques’, Annales, 21 (1966) pp. 261–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. O’Brien, ‘Public Finance in the Wars with France 1793–1815’, in H. T. Dickinson (ed.), Britain and the French Revolution 1789–1815 (1989) pp. 165–87;

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  9. K. F. Helleiner, The Imperial Loans: A Study in Financial and Diplomatic History (Oxford, 1965);

    Google Scholar 

  10. J. M. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder: British Foreign Aid in the Wars with France, 1793–1815 (Cambridge, Mass., 1969); O. W. Johnston, ‘British Pounds and Prussian Patriots’, The Consortium on Revolutionary Europe. Proceedings 1986, pp. 297–301; anon. memorandum, ‘Réflexions sur quelques Imputations dirigées contre l’Angleterre’, Vienna, Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv, Staatskanzlei, England Varia 13.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  11. E. M. Satow, The Silesian Loan and Frederick the Great (Oxford, 1915);

    Google Scholar 

  12. D. B. Horn, ‘The Cabinet Controversy on Subsidy Treaties in Time of Peace, 1749–50’, English Historical Review, 45 (1930) pp. 463–6;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. C. W. Eldon, England’s Subsidy Policy towards the Continent during the Seven Years’ War (Philadelphia, 1938);

    Google Scholar 

  14. G. Symcox, ‘Britain and Victor Amadeus II: or, the Use and Abuse of Allies’, in S. Baxter (ed.), England’s Rise to Greatness, 1660–1763 (Berkeley, 1983) pp. 151–84;

    Google Scholar 

  15. Black, ‘Parliament and Foreign Policy in the Age of Walpole: the Case of the Hessians’, in Black (ed.), Knights Errant and True Englishmen: British Foreign Policy, 1660–1800 (Edinburgh, 1989) pp. 41–54.

    Google Scholar 

  16. G. D. H. and M. Cole (eds), Rural Rides … By William Cobbett (3 vols, 1930) vol. II, p. 655.

    Google Scholar 

  17. C. Bridge, P. J. Marshall, G. Williams, ‘A “British” Empire’, International History Review, 12 (1990) p. 5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. T. Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750–1850 (Cambridge, 1990) pp. 79–104.

    Google Scholar 

  19. C. P. Scott 1846–1932. The Making of the ‘Manchester Guardian’ (Manchester, 1946) p. 23; H. Richardson, ‘Wiltshire Newspapers — Past and Present’, Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 41 (1922) p. 493;

    Google Scholar 

  20. D. F. Mitch, The Rise of Popular Literacy in Victorian England: The Influence of Private Choice and Public Policy (Philadelphia, 1992).

    Google Scholar 

  21. L. Brown, Victorian News and Newspapers (Oxford, 1985).

    Google Scholar 

  22. D. Dymond and E. Martin (eds), An Historical Atlas of Suffolk (2nd edn, Bury St Edmunds, 1989) pp. 108–9;

    Google Scholar 

  23. D. Gerkold, Road Transport Before the Railways: Russell’s London Flying Waggons (Cambridge, 1993) p. 206.

    Google Scholar 

  24. J. V. Somers Cocks, ‘The Great Western Railway and the Development of Devon and Cornwall’, Devon and Cornwall Notes and Queries, 36 (1987) pp. 9–15.

    Google Scholar 

  25. S. Pollard, Peaceful Conquest: The Industrialization of Europe, 1760– 1970 (Oxford, 1981) pp. 3–12;

    Google Scholar 

  26. R. Price, An Economic History of Modern France 1730–1914 (1981) passim, e.g p. 102;

    Book  Google Scholar 

  27. Price, A Concise History of France (Cambridge, 1993) p. 150.

    Google Scholar 

  28. J. McAleer, Popular Reading and Publishing in Britain 1914–1950 (Oxford, 1992) p. 32.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  29. H. I. Cowan, British Emigration to British North America (Toronto, 1961);

    Google Scholar 

  30. M. D. Pentis, The Scottish in Australia (Melbourne, 1987);

    Google Scholar 

  31. I. Donnachie, ‘The Making of “Scots on the Make”: Scottish Settlement and Enterprise in Australia, 1830–1900’, in T. M. Devine (ed.), Scottish Emigration and Scottish Society (Edinburgh, 1992) pp. 135–53.

    Google Scholar 

  32. C. O’Grada, ‘Irish Emigration to the United States in the Nineteenth Century’, in D. N. Doyle and O. D. Edwards (eds), America and Ireland, 1776–1976 (1980);

    Google Scholar 

  33. D. Baines, Migration in a Mature Economy (Cambridge, 1985) p. 10;

    Google Scholar 

  34. M. W. Flinn (ed.), Scottish Population History from the Seventeenth Century to the 1930s (Cambridge, 1977) p. 448;

    Google Scholar 

  35. M. Gray, Scots on the Move: Scots Migrants, 1750–1914 (Dundee, 1990); C. J. Houston and W. J. Smyth, ‘The Irish Diaspora: Emigration to the New World, 1720–1920’, and B. Collins, ‘The Irish in Britain, 1780–1921’, in Graham and Proudfoot, Historical Geography of Ireland, pp. 338–98.

    Google Scholar 

  36. C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World 1780–1830 (Harlow, 1989) pp. 249–50.

    Google Scholar 

  37. H. Cnattingius, Bishops and Societies: A Study of Anglican Colonial and Missionary Expansion 1698–1850 (1952);

    Google Scholar 

  38. J. F. A. Ajayi, Christian Missions in Nigeria 1841–1891 (1965);

    Google Scholar 

  39. N. Gunson, Messengers of Grace: Evangelical Missionaries in the South Seas 1797–1860 (Melbourne, 1978);

    Google Scholar 

  40. B. Stanley, The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Missions and British Imperialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1990).

    Google Scholar 

  41. P. B. Henze, ‘Circassian Resistance to Russia’, in M. B. Broxup (ed.), The North Caucasus Barrier: The Russian Advance towards the Muslim World (1992) pp. 102–3.

    Google Scholar 

  42. D. K. Fieldhouse, The Colonial Empires: A Comparative Survey (1966);

    Google Scholar 

  43. J. M. MacKenzie, ‘European Imperialism: Comparative Approaches’, European History Quarterly, 22 (1992) pp. 415–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. T. G. August, The Selling of the Empire: British and French Imperialist Propaganda, 1890–1940 (Westport, 1985);

    Google Scholar 

  45. W. R. Katz, Rider Haggard and the Fiction of Empire: A Critical Study of British Imperial Fiction (Cambridge, 1989);

    Google Scholar 

  46. J. Richards (ed.), Imperialism and Juvenile Literature (Manchester, 1989).

    Google Scholar 

  47. W. H. Schneider, An Empire for the Masses: The French Popular Image of Africa, 1870–1900 (Westport, 1982).

    Google Scholar 

  48. R. H. MacDonald, Sons of the Empire: The Frontier and the Boy Scout Movement, 1890–1918 (Toronto, 1993).

    Google Scholar 

  49. D. Kerr and D. W. Holdsworth (eds), Historical Atlas of Canada, vol. III (Toronto, 1990) p. 9.

    Google Scholar 

  50. B. Semmel, The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism (Cambridge, 1970).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  51. S. Jones, Two Centuries of Overseas Trading: The Origins and Growth of the Inchcape Group (1986) p. 292.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  52. B. Gough, The Falkland Islands/Malvinas: The Contest for Empire in the South Atlantic (1992) pp. 38–9;

    Google Scholar 

  53. C. J. Bartlett, Great Britain and Sea Power, 1815–1853 (Oxford, 1964) esp. pp. 54, 103–11, 132–7, 155–64, 277–92, 330–3.

    Google Scholar 

  54. E. Ingram, ‘Great Britain’s Great Game’, International History Review, 2 (1980) p. 162; and In Defence of British India: Great Britain in the Middle East, 1775–1842 (1984) p. 9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. J. S. Fishman, Diplomacy and Revolution: The London Conference of 1830 and the Belgian Revolt (Amsterdam, 1988).

    Google Scholar 

  56. C. J. Bartlett, Defence and Diplomacy: Britain and the Great Powers, 1815–1914 (Manchester, 1993).

    Google Scholar 

  57. P. K. O’Brien and G. A. Pigman, ‘Free Trade, British Hegemony and the International Economic Order in the Nineteenth Century’, Review of International Studies, 18 (1992) p. 95.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Crouzet, ‘Toward an Export Economy: British Exports during the Industrial Revolution’, Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, 18 (1980) p. 66;

    Google Scholar 

  59. K. Bruland, British Technology and European Industrialization: The Norwegian Textile Industry in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 1989).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  60. T. Leonard, Places of the Mind: The Life and Work of James Thomson (1992).

    Google Scholar 

  61. J. L. Smith (ed.), Victorian Melodrama (1976) pp. 220, 142, 222.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Dickens, Little Dorrit (Everyman edition, 1969) p. 15.

    Google Scholar 

  63. D. Nash, ‘The Rise and Fall of an Aristocratic Tourist Culture, Nice: 1763–1936’, Annals of Tourism Research, 6 (1979); J. Pemble, The Mediterranean Passion: Victorians and Edwardians in the South (Oxford, 1987);

    Google Scholar 

  64. P. Gordon, The Wakes of Northamptonshire (Northampton, 1992) p. 202;

    Google Scholar 

  65. P. Brendon, Thomas Cook (1991).

    Google Scholar 

  66. T. Tanner, Venice Desired (Oxford, 1992);

    Google Scholar 

  67. A. G. Hill, ‘Wordsworth and Italy’, Journal of Anglo-Italian Studies, 1 (1991) pp. 111–25, M. Hollington, ‘Dickens and Italy’, ibid., pp. 126–36.

    Google Scholar 

  68. G. Battiscombe, The Spencers of Althorp (1984) p. 225.

    Google Scholar 

  69. H. C. Robbins Landon, ‘Music’, in B. Ford (ed.), The Romantic Age in Britain (Cambridge, 1992) pp. 234–47.

    Google Scholar 

  70. D. I. Allsobrook, Liszt. My Travelling Circus Life (1992).

    Google Scholar 

  71. J. Dibble, C. Hubert H. Parry (Oxford, 1992).

    Google Scholar 

  72. W. Hindle, The Morning Post (1937) p. 138.

    Google Scholar 

  73. P. Usherwood, ‘William Bell Scott’s Iron and Coal: Northern Readings’, in Pre-Raphaelites: Painters and Patrons in the North East, Laing Gallery exhibition catalogue (Newcastle, 1989) pp. 46–7, 55, 51;

    Google Scholar 

  74. R. Blake, Disraeli (1966, 1969 ed) p. 402.

    Google Scholar 

  75. H. G. Weisser, British Working-class Movements and Europe, 1816–1848 (Manchester, 1975);

    Google Scholar 

  76. E. Biagini, Liberty, Retrenchment and Reform: Popular Liberalism in the Age of Gladstone, 1860–1880 (Cambridge, 1992);

    Google Scholar 

  77. M. C. Finn, After Chartism: Class and Nation in English Radical Politics, 1848–1874 (Cambridge, 1993) p. 322.

    Google Scholar 

  78. R. T. Shannon, Gladstone and the Bulgarian Agitation, 1876 (1963);

    Google Scholar 

  79. A. P. Saab, Reluctant Icon: Gladstone, Bulgaria and the Working Classes, 1856–1878 (Cambridge, Mass., 1991).

    Google Scholar 

  80. N. Davies, ‘“The Languor of so Remote an Interest”: British Attitudes to Poland, 1772–1832’, Oxford Slavonic Papers, 16 (1983) pp. 79–90;

    Google Scholar 

  81. D. Saunders, ‘Britain and the Ukrainian Question (1912–1920)’, EHR, 103 (1988) p. 41.

    Google Scholar 

  82. V. Berridge, ‘Content Analysis and Historical Research on Newspapers’, in M. Harris and A. Lee (eds), The Press in English Society from the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries (Cranbury, New Jersey, 1986) pp. 215–16.

    Google Scholar 

  83. T. P. Peardon, The Transition in English Historical Writing 1760–1830 (New York, 1933);

    Google Scholar 

  84. O. Anderson, ‘The Political Uses of History in Mid-Nineteenth Century England’, Past and Present, 36 (1967) pp. 87–105;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. J. Hamburger, Macaulay and the Whig Tradition (Chicago, 1976);

    Google Scholar 

  86. J. Burrow, A Liberal Descent: Victorian Historians and the English Past (Cambridge, 1981);

    Book  Google Scholar 

  87. Clark A(ed.), The Memoirs and Speeches of James, 2nd Earl Waldegrave (Cambridge, 1988) p. 119–34.

    Google Scholar 

  88. W. L. Arnstein, ‘Queen Victoria and Religion’, in G. Malmgreen (ed.), Religion in the Lives of English Women, 1760–1930 (1986). I have benefited from hearing a lecture by Professor Arnstein on this subject.

    Google Scholar 

  89. S. Bann, The Clothing of Clio: A Study of Representations of History in Nineteenth Century Britain and France (Cambridge, 1984).

    Google Scholar 

  90. B. Porter, ‘“Bureau and Barrack”: Early Victorian Attitudes towards the Continent’, Victorian Studies, 27 (1984) pp. 407–33, quote 427.

    Google Scholar 

  91. M. S. Partridge, Military Planning for the Defense of the United Kingdom, 1814–1870 (Westport, 1989).

    Google Scholar 

  92. D. Cressy, ‘The Fifth of November Remembered’, in R. Porter (ed.), Myths of the English (Cambridge, 1992) p. 81.

    Google Scholar 

  93. J. Bentham, Constitutional Code vol. I, ed. F. Rosen and J. H. Burns (Oxford, 1983) pp. xvi–xxi;

    Google Scholar 

  94. P. M. Kitromilides, ‘European Political Thought in the Making of Greek Liberalism: The Second National Assembly of 1862–1864 and the Reception of John Stuart Mill’s Ideas in Greece’, Parliaments, Estates and Representation, 8 (1988) pp. 11–21;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. H. James, A German Identity 1770–1990 (2nd edn, 1990) pp. 21–5.

    Google Scholar 

  96. R. Ashton, The German Idea: Four English Writers and the Reception of German Thought 1800–1860 (Cambridge, 1980).

    Google Scholar 

  97. F. Furet, Revolutionary France, 1770–1880 (Oxford, 1992).

    Google Scholar 

  98. J. Davis, ‘Urban Policing and its Objects: Comparative Themes in England and France in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century’, in C. Emsley and B. Weinberger (eds), Policing Western Europe: Politics, Professionalization and Public Order 1850–1940 (Westport, 1991).

    Google Scholar 

  99. P. M. Kennedy, ‘Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1870–1914’, English Historical Review, 86 (1971) pp. 728–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. R. Greenhill, ‘Shipping 1850–1914’, in D. C. M. Platt (ed.), Business Imperialism 1840–1930 (Oxford, 1977). pp. 119–55.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Platt, Britain’s Investment Overseas on the Eve of the First World War (1986).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  102. D. Read, The Power of News: The History of Reuters (1992) p. 82.

    Google Scholar 

  103. S. Pollard, Britain’s Prime and Britain’s Decline: The British Economy 1870–1914 (1989).

    Google Scholar 

  104. K. Burk, Britain, America and the Sinews of War, 1914–1918 (1985).

    Google Scholar 

  105. P. Payton, The Cornish Miner in Australia (Redruth, 1984);

    Google Scholar 

  106. G. Burke, ‘The Cornish Diaspora of the Nineteenth Century’, in S. Marks and P. Richardson (eds), International Labour Migration: Historical Perspectives (1984);

    Google Scholar 

  107. B. Deacon, ‘How Many Went? The Size of the Great Cornish Emigration of the Nineteenth Century’, Devon and Cornwall Notes and Queries, 36 (1987) pp. 5–8.

    Google Scholar 

  108. J. R. Alban, ‘The Wider World’, in R. A. Griffiths (ed.), The City of Swansea (Stroud, 1990) p. 123.

    Google Scholar 

  109. W. H. G. Armytage, German Influence in England Education (1969);

    Google Scholar 

  110. G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency … 1899–1914 (Oxford, 1971);

    Google Scholar 

  111. E. P. Hennock, ‘Technological education in England, 1850–1926: the Uses of a German Model’, History of Education, 19 (1990) pp. 299–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860–1914 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  113. J. Y. T. Greig (ed.), The Letters of David Hume (2 vols., Oxford, 1932) vol. I, p. 126.

    Google Scholar 

  114. A. J. Hanna, ‘The British Retreat from Empire’, in J. S. Bromley and E. H. Kossmann (eds), Britain and the Netherlands in Europe and Asia (1968) p. 239.

    Google Scholar 

  115. G. N. Sanderson, England, Europe and the Upper Nile, 1882–1899 (Edinburgh, 1965);

    Google Scholar 

  116. D. Bates, The Fashoda Incident of 1898 (1984);

    Google Scholar 

  117. J. D. Hargreaves, West Africa Partitioned (1985);

    Book  Google Scholar 

  118. J. S. Galbraith, Mackinnon and East Africa 1878–1895 (Cambridge, 1972);

    Google Scholar 

  119. Kennedy, The Samoan Triangle: A Study in Anglo-German-American Relations 1878–1900 (Dublin, 1974).

    Google Scholar 

  120. A. J. Marder, The Anatomy of British Seapower: A History of British Naval Policy in the Pre-Dreadnought Era, 1880–1905 (New York, 1940);

    Google Scholar 

  121. D. M. Schurman, The Education of a Navy: The Development of British Naval Strategic Thought, 1867–1914 (Malbar, 1984);

    Google Scholar 

  122. J. T. Sumida, In Defence of Naval Supremacy: Finance, Technology, and British Naval Policy 1889–1914 (1989);

    Google Scholar 

  123. B. Ranft, ‘Parliamentary Debate, Economic Vulnerability, and British Naval Expansion, 1860–1905’, in L. Freedman et al. (eds), War, Strategy and International Politics (Oxford, 1992).

    Google Scholar 

  124. D. Ayerst, Garvin of the ‘Observer’ (1985), pp. 42–7.

    Google Scholar 

  125. J. J. Bagley, The Earls of Derby 1485–1985 (1985) p. 211.

    Google Scholar 

  126. S. R. Williamson, The Politics of Grand Strategy: Britain and France Prepare for War, 1904–1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1969).

    Google Scholar 

  127. K. Bourne, The Foreign Policy of Victorian England 1830–1902 (Oxford, 1970) pp. 168–9, 181, 184, 493–5.

    Google Scholar 

  128. Williamson, ‘The Reign of Sir Edward Grey as British Foreign Secretary’ , International History Review, 1 (1979) p. 437.

    Google Scholar 

  129. O. Chadwick, The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth Century (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  130. P. Jenkins, A History of Modern Wales 1536–1990 (Harlow, 1992) pp. 339–41.

    Google Scholar 

  131. A. Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime (New York, 1981);

    Google Scholar 

  132. D. Newton, British Labour, European Socialism and the Struggle for Peace 1889–1914 (Oxford, 1985); Biagini, Liberty, Retrenchment and Reform.

    Google Scholar 

  133. R. A. Burchell (ed.), The End of Anglo-America: Historical Essays in the Study of Cultural Divergence (Manchester, 1991).

    Google Scholar 

  134. L. Benevolo, The European City (Oxford, 1993) pp. 185–6.

    Google Scholar 

  135. E. Halévy, ‘English Public Opinion and the French Revolutions of the Nineteenth Century’, in A. Colville and H. Temperley (eds), Studies in Anglo-French History (Cambridge, 1935) pp. 59–60.

    Google Scholar 

  136. J. R. Fears (ed.), Selected Writings of Lord Acton (3 vols, Indianapolis, 1986) vol. I, p. 432.

    Google Scholar 

  137. S. J. D. Green, ‘In Search of Bourgeois Civilisation: Institutions and Ideals in Nineteenth-Century Britain’, Northern History, 28 (1992) p. 241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  138. C. Emsley, Policing and its Context 1750–1870 (1983), pp. 68, 163, and ‘Peasants, Gendarmes and State Formation’, in M. Fulbrook (ed.), National Histories and European History (1993) pp. 85–6.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  139. H. Strachan, ‘The British Army and “Modern” War: The Experience of the Peninsula and of the Crimea’, in J. A. Lynn (ed.), Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871 (Urbana, 1990) p. 213.

    Google Scholar 

  140. L. S. Sutherland and L. G. Mitchell (eds), The History of the University of Oxford, vol. V: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1986) P. 5.

    Google Scholar 

  141. D. C. Coleman, Myth, History and the Industrial Revolution (1992) pp. 17–23.

    Google Scholar 

  142. B. W. Menning, Bayonets before Bullets: The Imperial Russian Army, 1861–1914 (Bloomington, 1992) p. 2.

    Google Scholar 

  143. A. Gollin, No Longer an Island: Britain and the Wright Brothers, 1902–1909 (1984) and The Impact of Air Power on the British People and their Government 1909–14 (1989).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Copyright information

© 1994 Jeremy Black

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Black, J. (1994). 1815–1914. In: Convergence or Divergence?. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-23345-8_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-23345-8_6

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-333-60859-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-349-23345-8

  • eBook Packages: Palgrave History CollectionHistory (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics