Abstract
Paul Ricoeur has characterized the ascription of singular causal connections between events as a transitional mode of explanation between lawful explanation and explanation by emplotment. He argues that singular causal statements mediate the traditional distinction between explanation and understanding, and thus represent the “nexus of all explanation in history.”1 According to Ricoeur, this mediating function helps to explain why the neo-Kantian arguments of Max Weber seem to run “in two different directions: on the one hand in the direction of emplotment, and on the other in the direction of scientific explanation.”2 The arguments of chorologists concerning the study of place and region could be described in a similar fashion.
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Paul Ricoeur, Time and Narrative: Volume 1, translated by Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), p. 181.
Georg Henrik von Wright, Explanation and Understanding (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971).
Bertrand Russell, “On the Notion of Cause,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, vol. xiii, 1912–1913, pp. 1–26
J. L. Mackie, The Cement of the Universe: A Study of Causation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), p. 143.
Michael Scriven, “Causation as Explanation,” Nous, vol. 9, 1975, pp. 3–16
Carl Sauer, “The Morphology of Landscape,” University of California Publications in Geography, vol. 2, 1925, pp. 19–54.
John Leighly (ed.) Land and Life: A Selection from the Writings of Carl Ortwin Sauer (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1963), pp. 315–50
George Tatham, “Environmentalism and Possibilism,” in Griffith Taylor (ed.) Geography in the Twentieth Century: A Study of Growth, Fields, Techniques, Aims and Trends (New York: Philosophical Library, 1951), pp. 128–62
See also Geoffrey J. Martin, “Paradigm Change: A History of Geography in the United States, 1892–1925,” National Geographic Research, vol. 1, 1985, pp. 217–35.
Andrew H. Clark, “Historical Geography,” in Preston E. James and Clarence F. Jones (eds) American Geography: Inventory and Prospect (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press for the Association of American Geographers, 1954), pp. 70–105
See also Daniel Loi, “Une Etude De La Causalité Dans La Géographie Classique Française,” L’Espace Géographique, vol. 14, 1985, pp. 121–25.
R. F. Atkinson, Knowledge and Explanation in History: An Introduction to the Philosophy of History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978), pp. 143–4.
For Hettner, a chorological science would be unnecessary if no causal relations existed between places and if different phenomena in the same places were independent of one another. He also notes that description has been replaced by causal research in all branches of geography. Alfred Hettner, Die Geographic Ihre Geschichte, Ihr Wesen und Ihre Methoden (Breslau: Ferdinand Hirt, 1927), pp. 116–17
Vincent Berdoulay, “The Vidal-Durkheim Debate,” in Marwyn S. Samuels and David Ley (eds) Humanistic Geography: Prospects and Problems (Chicago: Maaroufa Press, 1978), pp. 77–90
Fred Lukermann, “The ‘Calcul des Probabilités’ and the École Française de Géographie,” The Canadian Geographer, vol. 9, 1965, pp. 128–35
J. Nicholas Entrikin, “Humanism, Naturalism, and Geographical Thought,” Geographical Analysis, vol. 17, 1985, pp. 243–47.
Paul Claval, “Causalité et Géographie,” L’Espace Géographique, vol. 14, 1985, pp. 109–15.
Both Hettner and Hartshorne recognized the value and possibility of general laws in the chorological conception of geography. Hettner further noted that a strict causal relation would be one that involved laws. But both saw that the search for laws was only a part of the concern of the more concrete sciences such as geography. The idea that the complexity of regions could never be reduced to lawful regularities was suggested by Hartshorne when he stated that: Through genetic study of the development of the particular complex, or through comparative study of the few areas of similar character, we may be able to suggest possible hypotheses, but the description of what is involved in the complexity of the individual case can only be the subject of an individual study, for which the general principles, beyond a certain point, will never be available. Richard Hartshorne, Perspective on the Nature of Geography (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1959), p. 164.
Ian Hacking, “Nineteenth Century Cracks in the Concept of Determinism,” Journal of the History of Ideas, vol. 44, 1983, pp. 455–75
Hans Reichenbach, The Rise of Scientific Philosophy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1954), p. 165.
Ernest Nagel, The Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Scientific Explanation (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961), p. 316.
Lorraine J. Daston, “Rational Individuals versus Laws of Society: From Probability to Statistics,” in Lorenz Kruger, Lorraine J. Daston and Michael Heidelberger (eds) The Probabilistic Revolution, Volume I: Ideas in History (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987), pp. 295–304.
M. N. Wise, “How Do Sums Count?,” pp. 397–9. See also Vincent Berdoulay, La formation de l’école française de géographie (1870–1914) (Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale, 1981).
Harald Hoffding, Outlines of Psychology, translated by M.E.Lowndes (London: Macmillan, 1896), p. 351
Wilhelm Windelband, “History and Natural Science,” translated by Guy Oakes, History and Theory, vol. 19, 1980, pp. 165–85
David Zaret, “From Weber to Parsons and Schutz: The Eclipse of History in Modern Social Theory,” American Journal of Sociology, vol. 85, 1980, pp. 1180–1201.
See also Toby Huff, “On the Methodology of the Social Sciences: Parts 1–3,” Philosophy of the Social Sciences, vols. 11 and 12, 1981–2, pp. 461–72
Thomas Burger, Max Weber’s Theory of Concept Formation: History, Laws, and Ideal Types (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1976), p. 47.
T. Huff, “On the Methodology of the Social Sciences: Part 1,” p. 469. Weber did not eliminate causal regularities and nomothetic generalizations from social science. Rather, he argued that in the study of the historical individual, causal laws were a means rather than an end. He stated that: if the causal knowledge of the historians consists of the imputation of concrete effects to concrete causes, a valid imputation of any individual effect without the application of “nomological knowledge” — i.e., the knowledge of recurrent causal sequences — would in general be impossible. Max Weber, The Methodology of the Social Sciences, translated by Edward Shils and Henry A. Finch (New York: The Free Press, 1949), p. 79.
Stephen P. Turner, The Search for a Methodology of Social Science: Durkheim, Weber, and the Nineteenth-Century Problem of Cause, Probability, and Action (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1986), p. 164.
W. G. Runciman (ed.) Max Weber: Selections in Translation, translated by E. Matthews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 128n.
One such issue concerned the objective or absolute probability of an event occurring. This was calculated as the hypothetical probability of an individual event occurring, a calculation that did not seek to categorize the event as a member of a class of events and thus did not use ideas of relative frequency. Stephen P. Turner and Regis A. Factor, “Objective Possibility and Adequate Causation in Weber’s Methodological Writings,” Sociological Review, vol. 29, new series, 1981, pp. 5–28
Karl R. Popper, The Open Society and its Enemies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950), p. 722.
Ernst Cassirer, Substance and Function and Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, translated by William Curtis Swabey and Marie Collins Swabey (New York: Dover, 1953), p. 227n.
Thomas Beauchamp and Alexander Rosenberg, Hume and the Problem of Causation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), p. 3.
David Hume, An Abstract of a Treatise of Human Nature, edited by J. M. Keynes and P. Sraffa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1938), p. 22
T. Beauchamp and A. Rosenberg, Hume and the Problem of Causation, p. 308. See also Carl Hempel, “Explanation in Science and History,” in R. Colodny (ed.) Frontiers of Science and Philosophy (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962), pp. 9–33.
The debate concerning singular causal explanations takes many forms. Those views that I will emphasize here seek to describe such explanations as a distinct type of explanation. In doing this, they argue sometimes explicitly and sometimes implicitly against Hempel’s influential discussion of deductive nomological explanation in which both explanation and causation involve nomothetic connections between events. The types of responses range widely. Some attack the Humean concept of causality as constant conjunction. Others seek to distinguish a pragmatic sense of explaining from the logical issue of the nature of causation. Such pragmatists view both explanation and causation as contextually rather than logically defined. See, for example, Michael Scriven, “Truisms as the Grounds for Historical Explanation,” in Patrick L. Gardiner (ed.) Theories of History (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1959), pp. 443–75
Jaeqwon Kim, “Causes as Explanations: A Critique,” Theory and Decision, vol. 13, 1981, pp. 293–309
James Woodward, “A Theory of Singular Causal Explanation,” Erkenntnis, vol. 21, 1984, pp. 231–62
Roy Bhaskar, A Realist Theory of Science (Sussex: Harvester Press, 1978), pp. 44–56
Andrew Sayer, Method in Social Sciences (London: Hutchinson, 1984), pp. 97–126.
H. L. A. Hart and A. M. Honoré, Causation in the Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959), pp. 8–9.
According to Beauchamp and Rosenberg, David Hume’s theory of causation is an analysis of the causal relation; it is not an analysis of the logical subtleties of the ordinary employment of the word “cause.” Many writers on causation have taken him to provide such an analysis, but we shall argue that this understanding is a fundamental misconception. Hume certainly does examine the circumstances under which ordinary speakers believe their causal claims to be true, but his real interest is the actual circumstances under which they are true. Hume is never primarily interested in the analysis of ordinary linguistic meanings. T. Beauchamp and A. Rosenberg, Hume and the Problem of Causation, p. 3. Michael Scriven contends that such a distinction fails to recognize the contextual nature of explanation. He also maintains that cause is a theory-laden concept. See Michael Scriven, “Review of The Structure of Science by Ernest Nagel,” Review of Metaphysics, vol. 17, 1964, pp. 403–24
C. J. Ducasse, Truth, Knowledge and Causation (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968).
Maurice Mandelbaum, The Anatomy of Historical Knowledge (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), p. 97.
Louis Mink, “Review of The Anatomy of Historical Knowledge by Maurice Mandelbaum,” History and Theory, vol. 17, 1978, pp. 211–23
Paul Veyne, Writing History: Essay on Epistemology (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1984), p. 296.
Runciman has argued that the human sciences and the natural sciences can be distinguished, in part, by the types of judgements made in a description. Description in the human sciences is concerned with the question of “what was/is it like.” It can be separated from the mere reporting of events in terms of the interpretive element involved in the translation of one group’s experience in a manner that is both authentic in relation to their experience and understandable to the reader. The meaningfulness of human behavior adds a dimension to the tasks of human scientists that is not faced by natural scientists in their descriptions of natural phenomena. W. G. Runciman, A Treatise on Social Theory, Volume 1: The Methodology of Social Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 223–300.
Fernand Braudel, On History, translated by Sarah Matthews (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 11.
Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp. 245–69.
By fitting events into stories, narratives give a shape to the past that is not a part of the “real” past. In adding order they are also taking away its conceptual “messiness.” David Carr notes: In his famous introduction to the structural analysis of narrative, Barthes says that “art knows no static.” In other words, in a story everything has its place in a structure while the extraneous has been eliminated; and that in this it differs from “life,” in which everything is “scrambled messages” (communications brouillées). Thus, like Mink, Barthes raises the old question about the relation between “art” and “life,” and arrives at the same conclusion: the one is constitutionally incapable of representing the other. David Carr, “Narrative and the Real World: An Argument for Continuity,” History and Theory, vol. 25, 1986, pp. 117–31
Christopher Prendergast, The Order of Mimesis: Balzac, Stendhal, Nerval, Flaubert (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 20–1.
P. Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, pp. 45 and 64: D. Carr, “Narrative and the Real World,” p. 120; Hans Vaihinger, The Philosophy of the ‘As If’, translated by C. K. Ogden (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1925).
Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Phillip II, translated by Sian Reynolds (New York: Harper and Row, 1972).
Immanuel Wallerstein, “Discussion of Traian Stoianovich’s’ social History: Perspective of the Annales Tradition’,” Review, vol. 1, 1978, pp. 19–52
Philippe Carrard, “Figuring France: The Numbers and Tropes of Fernand Braudel,” Diacritics, vol. 18, 1988, pp. 2–19.
Cole Harris, “Theory and Synthesis in Historical Geography,” The Canadian Geographer, vol. 15, 1971, pp. 157–72
Andrew H. Clark, “The Whole is Greater than the Sum of its Parts: A Humanistic Element in Human Geography,” in Donald R. Deskins, Jr, George Kish, John D. Nystuen and Gunnar Olsson (eds) Geographic Humanism, Analysis and Social Action: Proceedings of Symposia Celebrating a Half Century of Geography at Michigan (Ann Arbor: Department of Geography, University of Michigan, 1977), pp. 3–26.
Louis Mink, “The Autonomy of Historical Understanding,” History and Theory, vol. 5, 1966, pp. 24–47.
See also Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982)
T. A. Goudge, The Ascent of Life: A Philosophical Study of the Theory of Evolution (London: Allen and Unwin, 1961).
Leonard Guelke, Historical Understanding in Geography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
M. M. Bakhtin, “The Bildungsroman and Its Significance in the History of Realism (Toward a Historical Typology of the Novel),” in Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, translated by Vera W. McGee and edited by Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), pp. 10–59
Frederick Jackson Turner, The United States, 1830–1850: Nation and Its Sections (New York: Norton Library, 1935)
Richard Andrews, “Some Implications of the Annales School and Its Methods for a Revision of Historical Writing About the United States,” Review, vol. 1, 1978, pp. 165–83
D. W. Meinig, The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History; Vol 1: Atlantic America 1492–1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986).
Alan R.H. Baker and Derek Gregory, “Some Terrae Incognitae in Historical Geography: An Exploratory Discussion,” in Alan R.H. Baker and Derek Gregory (eds) Explorations in Historical Geography: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 180–94
Derwent Whittlesey et al., Status of Research in American Geography: Regional Study with Special Reference to Geography (Washington DC: Division of Geology and Geography of the National Research Council, 1952).
G. P. Chapman, Human and Environmental Systems: A Geographer’s Appraisal (London: Academic Press, 1977)
R.J. Bennett and R.J. Chorley, Environmental Systems: Philosophy, Analysis and Control (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978).
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© 1991 J. Nicholas Entrikin
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Entrikin, J.N. (1991). Causal Understanding, Narrative and Geographical Synthesis. In: The Betweenness of Place. Critical Human Geography. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-21086-2_7
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