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Defence Policy II: Arms Procurements and Alignments

  • Chapter
Pakistan’s Defence Policy, 1947–58

Abstract

Until the advent of the Korean War, American policy towards Asia was couched in generalities with one specific objective of keeping a close watch over the likely inroads the Communists could make.1 Most American official agencies like the CIA and the National Security Council were repeatedly highlighting Soviets efforts to dominate Asia through the instruments of communist conspiracy and diplomatic pressures supported by military strength especially in the light of the communist takeover of China and the continued unrest in the non-communist areas of Asia.2 Similarly many academics and other observers were asserting two objectives for US policy formulation; to guide the Asian social revolution into constructive channels and to prevent the further spread of aggressive communism.3 While there seems to be a fairly high degree of unanimity over the dangers of communist expansion in Asia, there were also a remarkably accurateassessments of Asian sensitivities particularly about their anti-colonial sentiments and their hard-won independence.4

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Notes

  1. Speaking before the National Press Club, Dean Acheson Secretary of State, over and over emphasised that the American Asian policy primarily consisted of America’s interest in the Asians as people. ‘We are not interested in them as pawns or as subjects for exploitation but just as people’, remarked Acheson. He further stated that ‘our real interest is in those people as people. It is because communism is hostile to that interest that we want to stop it.’ See ‘Crisis in Asia — An Examination of US Policy’ by Secretary Acheson in Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 22, 1950, pp. 111–18.

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  2. See ‘Asian Problems of United States’ by Arthur Schlesinger Jr. in Foreign Policy Bulletin, Vol. 31, No. 13, 15 April 1952, pp. 4–6.

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  3. Also see ‘What should the New Administration Do in Asia?’ by Harold H. Fisher in Foreign Policy Bulletin, Vol. 32, No. 7, December 1952, p. 4.

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  4. See W. Norman Brown, The United States and India, Pakistan, Bangladesh (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1972), pp. 398–9.

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  5. FRUS, 1947, Vol. III, op. cit., pp. 151–2. Also see US Senate and Department of State, A Decade of Foreign Policy (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1950), pp. 782–3. Also see G.W. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 73–4.

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  6. See The Forrestal Diaries, edited by Walter Millis (New York: The Viking Press, 1951), pp. 277–8.

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  7. See The Secretary Marshall’s Memorandum to President, Truman, 17 July 1947. Papers of Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Missouri. Also see M.S. Venkataramani, The American Role in Pakistan 1947–58 (New Delhi: Radiant Publishers, 1982), pp. 7–8.

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  8. See Hearings on the Nominations of Philip Jessup to be US Representative to the Sixth General Assembly of the United Nations, quoted in America as the World Power, by Norman A. Graebner (New Delhi: University Book Stall, 1986) (Indian reprint), p. 168.

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  9. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 78. An American writer is of the view that Paul H. Alling did not present his credentials until February 1948. See ‘The Pakistan-American Alliance: A Reevaluation of Past Decade’ by George J. Lerski in Asian Survey, May 1968, pp. 400–15.

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  10. See Latif Ahmad Sherwani, Pakistan, China and America (Karachi: Council for Pakistan Studies, 1980), p. 39.

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  11. See ‘Soviet Policy in Asia’ by Geoffrey F. Hudson in Soviet Survey, July 1955, pp. 1–4. Also See G.W. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 11–12.

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  12. See Shirin Tahir-Kheli, The United States and Pakistan (New York: Praeger, 1982), p. 2.

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  13. For details see Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan: The Heart of Asia. A collection of speeches in the USA and Canada during May and June 1950 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950). Also see M. Rafique Afzal, op. cit., pp. 364–418.

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  14. Burke, op. cit., p. 122. See also ‘Case History of a Mistake’ by Selig S. Harrison in New Republic 10 August 1950.

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  15. See Jawaharlal Nehru, Discovery of India (London: Meridian Books, 1960), p. 143.

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  16. Also see A. Cuttmann (ed.), Korea and Theory of Limited War (Boston: D.C. Heath, 1967), p. 3. Also see Burke, op. cit., p. 122. Also see Rafique Afzal, op. cit., pp. 422–3.

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  17. Ibid. See also Tariq Ali, Pakistan: Military Rule or People’s Power (New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. 1970), p. 72.

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  18. See M. Rafique Afzal Speeches and Statements of Quaid-i-Millat Liaquat Ali Khan, op. cit., pp. 544–9. Also see Herbert Feldman, Revolution in Pakistan (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 37. Also see The New York Times, 10 March 1951.

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  19. See C.I. Eugene Kim and Lawrence Ziring, An Introduction to Asian Politics (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, Inc. 1977), pp. 188–90. Also see Stephens, op. cit., p. 219.

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  20. See Amos A. Jorden, William J. Taylor Jr. and Associates, American National Security: Policy and Process (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), pp. 60–4.

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  21. President Harry S. Truman’s address delivered to a Joint Session of Congress, 12 March 1947, reproduced in Joseph M. Jones, The Fifteen Weeks (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1955), p. 272.

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  22. See John Foster Dulles, War Or Peace (New York: MacMillan, 1957), pp. iii–xi, 262–6.

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  23. See the statement by the President of the United States in Documents on American Foreign Relations, ed. Peter V. Curl (New York: Harper and Brothers 1955), pp. 373–4. Also see The Hindu, 26 February 1954.

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  24. During the last week of December 1953 India circulated a memorandum to friendly governments in the Middle East and Commonwealth setting forth its objections to American military assistance for Pakistan. See ‘Military Assistance for Pakistan’ by James W. Spain in the American Political Science Review, Vol. XLVII 948, No. 30, September 1954, pp. 738–51. Also see The New York Times, 26 December 1953.

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  25. Ibid. Also see ‘Pakistan: New Ally’ by James W. Spain in America, Vol. 90, No. 24, 13 March 1954.

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  26. Quoted in Burke, op. cit., p. 165. See also Anthony Eden, Full Circle (London: Cassell, 1960), p. 91.

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  27. See David Horowitz From Yalta to Vietnam (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1967), pp. 145–8.

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  28. See Peter Lyon, War and Peace in South East Asia (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 107.

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  29. See ‘Collective Security in S.E. Asia’ by Richard Butwell in Eastern World, Vol. VIII, September 1954, pp. 10–13.

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  30. Ibid. Also see Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, op. cit., pp. 13761–64. Also see the text of the treaty in George Modelski, SEATO (Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire, 1964), p. 289.

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  31. Ibid. Also see ‘The Manila Pact and the Pacific Charter’ by J.F. Dulles in the Department of State Bulletin, 27 September 1954, pp. 431–3.

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  32. The treaty specifically mentioned ‘to prevent or to counter by appropriate means any attempt to subvert freedom or to destroy sovereignty or territorial integrity’. See ‘SEATO: A Critique’ by Ronald C. Nairn in Pacific Affairs, Vol. XLI, Spring, 1968, pp. 5–18.

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  33. See T.B. Miller, ‘America’s Alliance: Asia’ in America’s Security in the 80s Part II, Adelphi Paper No. 174 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1982), pp. 28–9.

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  34. See Venkataramani, The American Role in Pakistan 1947–58, op. cit., p. 246.

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  35. Quoted in ‘Pakistan and the Great Powers’ by Shamim Akhtar in Pakistan in a Changing World, edited by Masuma Hasan (Karachi: Pakistan Institute of International Affairs, 1978), pp. 172–3.

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  36. Quoted in ‘The Gulf Region in the Global Setting’ by John C. Campbell in The Security of the Persian Gulf, edited by Hossein Amirsadeghi (London: Croom Helm, 1981), pp. 1–2.

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  37. Burke, op. cit., p. 169. Also see John D. Jernegan, ‘The Middle East and South Asia — The Problem of Security in Department of State Bulletin, 22 March 1954, pp. 444–8.

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  38. Ibid. Also see Venkataramani, op. cit., p. 259. Also see Chester Bowles, Ambassador’s Report, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), p. 254.

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  39. Ibid. For detailed study also see John. C. Campbell Defence of the Middle East (New York: Harper and Brothers, Council on Foreign Relations, 1958). Also see NSC Documents No. 5428 dated 23 July 1954 in which it was recommended to encourage the plans for area defence.

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  40. Burke, op. cit., p. 170. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 90. Also see W.J. Gallman, Iraq Under General Nuri: My Recollections of Nuri al Said 1954–1958 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968), p. 58.

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  41. Also see John C. Campbell, ‘Doctrine to Policy in the Middle East’ in Foreign Affairs, April 1957.

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  42. See Jernegen, op. cit., p. 445. Also see John Foster Dulles, ‘A Mutual Security Program for 1955’ in The Department of State Bulletin, 19 April 1954, pp. 579–81.

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  43. Also see The Growth of Freedom in India’ by George V. Allen in the Department of State Bulletin, 1 June 1954, pp. 864–6. Also see The Hearing before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 83rd Congress, Second Session, 19 March and 14 April 1954 (Washington: DC. US Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 43–4.

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  44. See Lerski, op. cit., pp. 403–4. Also see Fred Greene U.S. Policy and the Security of Asia (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1968), p. 127.

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  1. Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

    Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema (Professor of International Relations)

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© 1990 Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema

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Cheema, P.I. (1990). Defence Policy II: Arms Procurements and Alignments. In: Pakistan’s Defence Policy, 1947–58. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-20942-2_4

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-20942-2_4

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