Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Defence Policy I: Early Developments

  • Chapter
Pakistan’s Defence Policy, 1947–58

  • 15 Accesses

Abstract

One of the important prerequisites to analyse any country’s security problems is the identification of threats emanating either from external sources or from within. The operative military doctrine and the existing force postures are often designed to meet the perceived threats despite the unresolved controversy whether the doctrine guides the evolution of force posture or whether the converse is true. However, the primary function of a military doctrine is to maximise the effectiveness of a state’s military capabilities in support of national objectives.1 Not only are the national strategic objectives invariably devised by the country’s ruling elite in consultation with the civil and military bureaucracies in almost all the Third World countries, but interpreting threats to the security of a state is also their prerogative. Thus it is not surprising that often the threats to their survival are interpreted as threats directed against the survival or physical security of the countries under their rule. However, the case of Pakistan has been slightly different. Despite the domination of Panjabi and refugee upper-middle-class elites with their strong anti-Indian orientations, the differences of opinion over priorities (defence, economic development, domestic political system, and foreign policies) have consistently been resolved in favour of defence-orientated foreign policies by almost all prominent political parties and pressure groups somewhat unanimously.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Notes

  1. See Paul R. Viotti’s ‘Introduction: Military Doctrine’ in Comparative Defence Policy, edited by Frank B. Horton III, Anthony C. Rogerson and Edward L. Warner III (Baltimore; The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974), pp. 190–2.

    Google Scholar 

  2. See ‘Threat and Foreign Policy: The Overt Behaviour of States in Conflict’ by Gerald W. Hopple, Paul J. Rossa and Jonathan Wilkenfeld in Threat, Weapons, and Foreign Policy edited by Pat McGowan and Charles W. Kegley, Jr. (Beverly Hills; Sage Publication, 1980), pp. 44–5.

    Google Scholar 

  3. See Kenneth N. Waltz, Man, the State and War: A Theoretical Analysis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964, third edition), pp. 230–3.

    Google Scholar 

  4. For detailed analysis see ‘Threat Perception and the Armament-Tension Dilemma’ by David J. Singer in Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.11, No. 1, March 1958, pp. 90–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976), pp. 48–9.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Literature on the use of force is sizable. It is not necessary to mention here all the books and articles on the topic. However, some of those books and articles which provide sufficient insight are listed here. See The Use of Force in International Relations, edited by F.S. Northedge (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1974);

    Google Scholar 

  7. The Use of Force, edited by Robert J. Art and Kenneth N. Waltz (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971);

    Google Scholar 

  8. The ‘Role of Military Power’ by John Garnett in Contemporary Strategy Theories and Policies by John Baylis, Ken Booth, John Garnett and Phil Williams (London: Croom Helm, 1975), pp. 50–64;

    Google Scholar 

  9. ‘Force in Modern Societies: Its place in International Polities’, Adelphi Paper No. 102 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1973); Quincy Wright, A Study of War (2nd edition) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965);

    Google Scholar 

  10. Oran R. Young, The Politics of Force (Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press 1968);

    Google Scholar 

  11. Robert E. Osgood and Robert Tucker, Force, Order and Justice (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967).

    Google Scholar 

  12. For an interesting discussion of the concept of national security see ‘The place and role of defence experts in national security’ by Syed Imtiaz Hussain Bokhari in Strategic Studies, Vol. V, No. 1, Autumn 1981, pp. 33–47.

    Google Scholar 

  13. See M. Rafique Afzal, Selected Speeches of the Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah (Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan, 1976), third impression, pp. 423–39.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Also see M. Rafique Afzal, Speeches and Statements of Quaid-i-Millat Liaquat Ali Khan (Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan, 1967), pp. 179, 182–3.

    Google Scholar 

  15. See ‘Pakistan’s Defence Policy’ by Hasan Askari Rizvi in Pakistan Horizon, Vol. XXXVI, No. 1, 1983, p. 36. 17.

    Google Scholar 

  16. While almost all books covering the creation of Pakistan do have sections on communal strife, the following books give a comprehensive picture of the situation: Sir Francis Tuker, While Memory Serves (London: Cassell and Company Ltd., 1950);

    Google Scholar 

  17. Richard Symonds, The Making of Pakistan (London: Faber and Faber, 1949);

    Google Scholar 

  18. E.W.R. Lumby The Transfer of Power in India (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1954);

    Google Scholar 

  19. Allan Campbell-Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten (London: Robert Hale, 1953);

    Google Scholar 

  20. Ian Stephens, Pakistan (London: Ernest Benn Ltd., 1963).

    Google Scholar 

  21. The first ordnance factory of Pakistan became operational in 1951. See Hasan- Askari Rizvi, ‘Pakistan’ in Arms Production in Developing Countries, edited by James Evertt Katz (Toronto: Lexington Books, 1984), p. 265.

    Google Scholar 

  22. See Aslam Siddiqui, Pakistan Seeks Security (Lahore: Longmans, Green, 1960), pp. 44–7.

    Google Scholar 

  23. See S.S. Khera, India’s Defence Problems (New Delhi: Orient Longmans, 1968), pp. 24–5.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Hasan Askari Rizvi, The Military and Politics in Pakistan (Lahore: Progressive Publishers, 1976), p. 33.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Richard Symonds, The Making of Pakistan (London: 1950), p. 79.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Connell, op. cit., p. 928. Also see Khera, op. cit., p. 35. Also see Lt. Gen. M. Attiqur Rahman, Our Defence Cause (London: White Lion Publishers Limited, 1976), pp. 25–6.

    Google Scholar 

  27. See Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 29. Also see Stephen P. Cohen, The Pakistan Army (New Delhi: Himalayan Books, 1984), p. 17.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Also see Aslam Siddiqi, A Path For Pakistan (Karachi: Pakistan Publishing House, 1964), p. 74. Also see Rizvi op. cit., p. 32.

    Google Scholar 

  29. See Eugene K. Keefe’s chapter on ‘National Security’ in Pakistan: A Country Study, edited by Richard F. Nyrop (Washington D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1984, fifth edition), p. 265.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Many writers, Indian, Pakistani and others, have written that a few Pakistani soldiers were unofficially involved with the tribesmen. See Prithvi Nath Kaul Bamzai, Kashmir and Power Politics: From Lake Success to Tashkent (Delhi: Metropolitan Book Co., 1966), p. 129. Also see M.C. Chagla Kashmir 1947–1965 (New Delhi: Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1965).

    Google Scholar 

  31. Also see Maj. Gen. Akbar Khan, Raiders in Kashmir (Karachi: National Book Foundation, 1970), pp. 1–98;

    Google Scholar 

  32. Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah, Attish-e-Chinar (in Urdu), an autobiography (Lahore: Chaudhury Academy, 1985), pp. 402–60; Maj. Gen. Fazal Maqeem Kahn, op. cit., pp. 94–5.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Also see Maj. Gen. M. Skbar Khan’s interview with Brig. A.R. Siddiqui in The Defence Journal, Vol. XI, Nos. 6–7, 1985, pp. 16–20; Lars Blinkenberg, op. cit., pp. 108–9. Also see William C. Johnston, op. cit., p. 314. The Indian argument accusing Pakistan of involvement in tribal invasion has been quoted by many authors as well. For example, see Josef Korbel, op. cit., pp. 104–5. Also see Muhammad Zafrullah Khan, op. cit., p. 149. Also see M.M.R. Khan, op. cit., pp. 86–7.

    Google Scholar 

  34. See Brig. Gulzar Ahmed, Pakistan Meets Indian Challenge (Rawalpindi: Al Mukhtar Publishers, 1967), pp. 59–60.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Ayub Khan mentions that when he took over as Adjutant General he realised that there were some 50 000 men of varying military quality in the Azad forces. Similarly Sardar Ibrahim Khan also mentions in his book that his government was supported by roughly 30 000 voluntary men and the number kept on rising. See Mohammad Ayub Khan, op. cit., p. 31; Sardar Ibrahim Khan The Kashmir Saga (Lahore: Rippon Press, 1965), pp. 86–100.

    Google Scholar 

  36. See Davis B. Bobrow, Components of Defence Policy (Chicago: Rand Mc Nally Company, 1965), pp. 8–9.

    Google Scholar 

  37. For a detailed study of defence policy and strategy’s compromises see E.J. Kingston-McCloughry, Defence Policy and Strategy (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1960), pp. 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  38. See William J. Barnds, ‘Pakistan’s Foreign Policy: Shifting Opportunities and Constraints’ in Pakistan: The Long View, edited by Lawrence Ziring, Ralph Brabanti and W. Howard Wriggins (Darham, N.C. Duke University Press, 1977), p. 370.

    Google Scholar 

  39. See ‘Pakistan’s Growing Stature’ by Qutabuddin Aziz in Eastern World, Vol. 14, No. 10, October 1949, p. 15.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Ibid. Also see Khalid B. Sayeed, The Political System of Pakistan (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1967), p. 284.

    Google Scholar 

  41. See S.M. Burke, Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 121.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

    Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema (Professor of International Relations)

Authors
  1. Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Copyright information

© 1990 Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Cheema, P.I. (1990). Defence Policy I: Early Developments. In: Pakistan’s Defence Policy, 1947–58. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-20942-2_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-20942-2_3

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-349-20944-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-349-20942-2

  • eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation