Abstract
It is a commonplace that the relations of nation-states are amoral at best. It is less commonplace to note that national leaders nevertheless cloak their deeds in the language of high moral purpose. If hypocrisy is the tribute vice pays to virtue, it is worth asking why leaders think the tribute needs to be paid and why there is so little prospect of word passing into deed.
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Notes
G. Kennan, ‘Morality and Foreign Policy’, Foreign Affairs, 64 (Winter 1985/86) 206.
A number of studies of the fate of Carter’s attempt have appeared in the past few years, including: G. Smith, Morality, Reason, and Power: American Diplomacy in the Carter Years (New York: Hill and Wang, 1986)
J. Muravchik, The Uncertain Crusade: Jimmy Carter and the Dilemmas of Human Rights Policy (Lanham: Hamilton Press, 1986)
C. Bell, President Carter and Foreign Policy: The Costs of Virtue (Canberra: The Australian National University, 1980).
For a partially dissenting view, see T. Jacoby, ‘Did Carter Fail on Human Rights?’, Washington Monthly, 18 (June 1986) 51–5. Jacoby argues that while Carter’s plans certainly failed in execution, with the possible exception of some nations in Latin America, he nonetheless implanted the ideal of a morally sensitive policy. Jacoby believes, for example, that President Reagan willy-nilly followed Carter’s course, as in Haiti and the Philippines, but with much greater deftness of execution.
A. Arneson, ‘Perspective of Norwegian Development Aid in the 1980’s’, in Poverty and Aid, edited by J.R. Parkensen (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983) 127.
Long ago, Joseph Schumpeter made the claim that Sweden’s institutions and perspectives are so deeply rooted in its particular social context as to be impossible to duplicate elsewhere. See Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Allen and Unwin, 1943) 325.
T.J. Anton, Administered Politics: Elite Political Culture in Sweden (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980).
See A. Roberts, Nations in Arms: The Theory and Practice of Territorial Defense (New York: Praeger, 1976) 62–83, for a sketch of the conditions which have allowed and nurtured Swedish neutrality over the years. Marquis Childs offers a useful description of Sweden’s often precarious efforts to remain neutral during the Second World War in Sweden: The Middle Way on Trial, op. cit., 120–32.
For a comparatively recent description of Swedish economic conditions and a useful bibliography, see R. L. Heilbroner, ‘The Swedish Promise’, New York Review of Books, 27 (4 December 1980) 33–6.
Palme maintained close contacts with the Socialist International and was elected its Vice-President in December 1976; ibid., 22. In addition, he often collaborated with Social Democrats of other nations, in particular with Willi Brandt of West Germany and Felipe Gonzalez of Spain. See J. Kapstein, ‘Palme’s Master Plan for Sweden is Alive and Well’, Business Week, no. 2937 (17 March 1986) 67.
A decade ago its standard of living and per capita income were generally agreed to be the highest in the world. A few years later, its per capita income was surpassed by that of a number of oil-producing nations. Recently, economic strains may have undermined its pre-eminence in living standards as well. See ‘Swedes Flourishing, Feel Guilty About Their Wealth and Debate Their Obligations’, New York Times (26 December 1974) and A. Roberts, op. cit., 67.
In fact the Swedish Parliament (the Riksdag) endorsed a policy of solidarity with the Third World in 1962. H.M. Selim, Development Assistance Policies and the Performance of Aid Agencies (London: Macmillan, 1983) 12.
See M. Radetzki, Aid and Development: A Handbook for Small Donors (New York: Praeger, 1973) 126–8. The debate was finally resolved with the conclusion that the goal be retained. See footnote 4.
S. Goode, The Foreign Policy Debate (New York: Franklin Watts, 1984) 49–59 provides a useful quick sketch of this consciousness.
S. Karnow, ‘Carter and Human Rights’, Saturday Review (2 April 1977) 6
‘Carter Spins the World’, Time, 110 (8 August 1977) 8.
For a sampling of the thinking of two of the Congressmen who have been active in this field, see D.M. Frazer, ‘Congress’s Role in the Making of International Human Rights Policy’, in D.P. Kommers and G.D. Loescher (eds) Human Rights and Foreign Policy (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1979) 247–54
T. Harkin, ‘Humanitarian Rights and Foreign Aid: Forging an Unbreakable Link’, in P.G. Brown and D. MacLean (eds) Human Rights and US Foreign Policy (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1979) 15–26.
Useful general treatments of the founding of the United Nations, with discussion of how efforts were made to foresee problems and avoid mistakes of the past include T.M. Franck, Nation Against Nation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985) 1–44
H. V. Evatt, The United Nations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1948) 3–45. Specific treatments of the attempt to cope with issues of human rights include P.R. Baehr and L. Gordenker, The United Nations: Reality and Ideal (New York: Praeger, 1984) 99–117 and the particularly thorough treatment by J.F. Green, The United Nations and Human Rights (Washington: The Brookings Institution, 1956).
For a discussion of some aspects of current UN efforts to promote human rights, difficulties, and proposals for change, presented by the Special Assistant to the Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights of the United Nations, see B.G. Ramcharan, ‘New Avenues for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights: Advisory Services and Technical Assistance’, Human Rights Internet Reporter, 10 (May–August 1985) 550–60.
P. Alston, ‘Remedying U.N. Pussy-Footing on Human Rights’, Human Rights Internet Reporter, 11 (June 1986) 7–8.
The difficulties in the way of UN efforts on behalf of human rights — including outrageous hypocrisy — resulting from its dependence on the support and finances of member nations are examined by S. Hazzard, ‘UNhelpful’, New Republic, 182 (12 April 1980) 10–13.
The difficulties and politics which lie in the way of gaining solid information on human rights abuses is chronicled by S.D. Bailey, ‘UN Fact-Finding and Human Rights Complaints’, International Affairs, 148 (April 1972) 250–66.
Also see T.J.M. Zuijdwijk, Petitioning the United Nations: A Study in Human Rights (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982) for a detailed study of the machinery and limitations of the UN in dealing with complaints of human rights abuses.
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© 1990 Gerard Elfstrom
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Elfstrom, G. (1990). Conclusion: Present and Future Prospects. In: Ethics for a Shrinking World. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-20500-4_6
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