Abstract
All churches are organised communities of religious believers, and their primary concerns are obviously spiritual rather than political. Nonetheless, as Gandhi once observed, ‘if you believe that religion has nothing to do with politics, you don’t understand religion’. In every political system religion and politics are inevitably intertwined, and there is no doubt that churches play a political role, albeit of varying significance, in all political systems. Furthermore, it is clear that what is apparently ‘non-political’ in one context may become highly political in another: a candlelit procession may be viewed as a manifestation of private faith in one setting, yet become an act of visible political protest in another.
‘This is what the Church is said to want, not party men, but sensible, temperate, sober, well-judging persons to guide it through the channel of no meaning, between the Scylla and Charybdis ofAye and No.’ (Cardinal Newman)
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Notes to Chapter 7
For a discussion of the term ‘secularisation’ and its implications for organised religion see A. D. Gilbert, The Making of Post-Christian Britain. A History of the Secularisation of Modern Society (London: Longman, 1980).
On the relationship between Marxism and religion see J. M. Bochenski, ‘Marxism-Leninism and Religion’, in Bohdan Bociurkiw and John Strong (eds) Religion and Atheism in the USSR and Eastern Europe (London: Macmillan, 1975); and
Trevor Beeson, Discretion and Valour (London: Fount Paperbacks, 1982, revised edn) pp. 15–22.
Peter Prifti, ‘Albania — Towards an Athiest Society’, in Bociurkiw and Strong, p. 400; see also Bernhard Tonnes, ‘Religious Persecution in Albania’, Religion in Communist Lands, vol. 10, no. 4, September 1982, pp. 242–55.
See J. L. Adams, The Growing Church Lobby in Washington (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Ferdmans, 1970).
For a more detailed description of the governing structure of the Church of England see D. Perlman, Change and the Churches (London: Bodley Head, 1977) pp. 135–8.
This is not to imply that a shift of allegiance to a new regime is painless; on the contrary, in the Soviet context it meant dislocation, disaffection and schism. On the theology of Russian Orthodoxy see William Fletcher, ‘Backwards from Reactionism: The DeModernization of the Russian Orthodox Church’, in Dennis Dunn (ed.) Religion and Modernization in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1977) pp. 205–38.
Wolfgang Mleczkowski, ‘In Search of the Forbidden Nation: Opposition by the Young Generation of the GDR’, Goverment and Opposition, vol. 18, no. 2, spring 1983, p. 187.
Walter Sawatsky, ‘The Reform Baptists Today’, Religion in Communist Lands, vol. 8, no. 1, winter 1980, pp. 33–4.
Michael Bourdeaux, ‘Roman Catholics and Uniates’, in George Schopflin (ed.) The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe: A Handbook (London: Blond, 1970) p. 476.
M. Friedman, ‘Religion and Politics in an Age of Pluralism: An Ethnocultural View’, Publius, vol. 10, no. 3, summer 1980, p. 67. This survey reinforced an earlier one in 1973 which found that only 6.4 per cent of Americans claimed to have no religious faith; see M. T. Hanna, Catholics and American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979) p. 1.
A. Percheron, ‘Religious Acculturation and Political Socialisation in France’, West European Politics, vol. 5, no. 2, April 1982, p. 814.
G. Drewry and J. Brock, ‘Prelates in Parliament’, Parliamentary Affairs, vol. 24, no. 3, 1971, p. 247.
On France see John Ardagh, France in the 1980s (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1982) p. 452.
D. Conradt, The German Polity (London: Longman, 1978) p. 31.
See A. M. Greeley, The American Catholic (New York: Basic Books, 1977) chapter 7.
S. White, ‘Political Culture in Communist Societies. Some Problems of Theory and Method’, Comparative Politics, vol. 16, no. 3, April 1984, p. 360.
George Cushing, ‘Protestantism in Hungary’, Religion in Communist Lands, vol. 10, no. 2, summer 1982, p. 126.
Ibid., pp. 126–7;
Steven Polgar, ‘A Summary of the Situation of the Hungarian Catholic Church’, Religion in Communist Lands, vol. 12, no. 1, spring 1984, p. 21.
Stephen R. Bowers, ‘Private Institutions in Service to the State: The German Democratic Republic’s Church in Socialism’, East European Quarterly, vol. XVI, no. 1, March 1982, p. 83;
Roger Williamson, ‘East Germany: The Federation of Protestant Churches’, Religion in Communist Lands, vol. 9, no. 1, spring 1981, p. 8.
The Guardian, 19 April 1984; cf. Pedro Ramet, ‘Catholicism and Politics in Socialist Yugoslavia’, Religion in Communist Lands, vol. 10, no. 3, autumn 1982, p. 263.
Bogdan Szajkowski, Next to God… Poland (London: Frances Pinter, 1983) p. 72.
See Michael Bourdeaux, Land of Crosses (Chulmleigh, Devon: Augustine Publishing Co., 1979) esp. chapters 8–9;
also V. Stanley Vardys, ‘Lithuania’s Catholic Movement Reappraised’, Survey, vol.25, no. 3, summer 1980, pp. 49–73.
Philip Walters, ‘Christians in Eastern Europe: A Decade of Aspirations and Frustrations’, Religion in Communist Lands, vol. 11, no. 1, winter 1983, p. 22.
Cf. Kenneth Medhurst and George Moyser, ‘From Princes to Pastors: The Changing Position of the Anglican Episcopate in English Society and Politics’, West European Politics, vol. 5, no. 2, April 1982, p. 190, note 19.
See, for example, J. Madely, ‘Politics and the Pulpit: The Case of Protestant Europe’, West European Politics, vol. 5, no. 2, April 1982, p. 147.
H. Ehrmann, Politics in France (Boston: Little Brown, 1983, 4th edn) p. 64.
Ramet, p. 261; S. Alexander, ‘Yugoslavia: New Legislation on the Legal Status of Religious Communities’, Religion in Communist Lands, vol. 8, no. 2, summer 1980, p. 121.
P. J. Richards, Parliament and Conscience (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970) p. 159.
See Charles Kovats, ‘The Path of Church-State Reconciliation in Hungary’, in Robert F. King and James F. Brown, Eastern Europe’s Uncertain Future (New York: Praeger, 1977) p. 303, p. 307.
Christopher Bobinski in the Financial Times, 20 January 1982.
Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution. Solidarity1980–82 (London: Cape, 1983) p. 21.
See Mleczkowski; Arvan Gordon, ‘The Church’s Peace Initiative in the GDR — Developments during Spring 1982’, Religion in Communist Lands, vol. 10, no. 3, autumn 1982, pp. 202–3;
Timothy Garton Ash, ‘East Germany. A Breakthrough?’, Index on Censorship, vol. 13, no. 1, January 1984, pp. 36–7;
Gus Fagan, ‘The Peace Movement Enters its Second Year’, Labour Focus on Eastern Europe, vol. 6, no. 1–2, summer 1983, pp. 18–19.
A. K. Russell, Liberal Landslide. The General Election of 1906 (Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1973) pp. 182–6.
It is interesting that Maurice Kogan in conversation with former ministers Edward Boyle and Anthony Crosland, The Politics of Education (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1971) makes no reference to any dispute with the churches.
Polgar, p. 19; see also F. Koszegi and I. Szent-Ivanyi, ‘The Peace Movement in Eastern Europe’, Praxis International, vol. 3, 1983, p. 20;
also ‘Church Peace Committee founded in Hungary’, Religion in Communist Lands, vol. 12, no. 2, summer 1984, pp. 211–12.
K. Hindell and M. Simms, Abortion Law Reformed (London: Peter Owen, 1971) p. 182.
See F. S. Jaffe, B. L. Lindheim and P. R. Lee, Abortion Politics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981) pp. 121–2.
Ibid., pp. 141–7. By 1984 there had been over thirty bombing attacks on US abortion clinics.
See R. K. Baker et al., ‘Matters of Life and Death. Social, Political and Religious Correlates of Attitudes on Abortion’, American Political Quarterly, vol. 9, no. 1, January 1981, pp. 89–102;
C. Rancombe, ‘Abortion Politics in the United States’, Political Studies, vol. 28, no. 4, December 1980, pp. 613–21;
J. S. Legge, ‘Predictors of Abortion Attitudes in the Federal Republic of Germany’, The Journal of Politics, vol. 45, no. 3, August 1983, pp. 759–66. Greeley, pp. 245–6, also points out that right-to-life groups do not enjoy anything near majority support even amongst Irish Catholics.
See Henry P. David, Family Planning and Abortion in the Socialist Countries of Central and Eastern Europe (New York: The Population Council, 1970) p. 134.
Ivan Volgyes and Nancy Volgyes, The Liberated Female: Life, Work and Sex in Socialist Hungary (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1977) p. 220, note 20.
The Soviet Union and all the countries of Eastern Europe have had periods of restricted abortion and abortion on request, as well as periods of restricted and liberal interpretation; the legal position is charted in Tomas Frejka, ‘Induced Abortion and Fertility: A Quarter Century of Experience in Eastern Europe’, Population and Development Review, vol. 9, no. 3, September 1983, p. 496.
Attitudinal evidence of popular views is confused and confusing, partly because of the methodological deficiencies of many studies; see Maciej Pomian-Srzednicki, Religious Change in Contemporary Poland: Secularization and Politics (London: Routledge & Keegan Paul, 1982) chapters 5 & 7;
cf. D. Peter Mazur, ‘Procreation and New Definitions in the Role of Women in a Soviet Bloc Country: The Case of Poland’, in Tova Yedlin (ed.) Women in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (New York: Praeger, 1980) pp. 232–5; also David, pp. 68. 118; Chrypinski, p. 243; also Patrick Michel, ‘Morale et société en Pologne: le discours de l’église’, Revue d’Études Comparatives Est-Ouest, vol. 14, no. 1, March 1983, pp. 130–1; see also Polgar, p. 33.
See E. A. Lewin, ‘The Finances of the Vatican’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 18, no. 2, April 1983, pp. 185–204.
Peter Hebblethwaite, The Runaway Church (London: Collins, 1978) p. 191.
We are indebted to Alistair Kee for these observations: see his unpublished paper, ‘The Religious/Political Right in America’, American Political Studies Conference, University of Durham, January 1984.
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© 1986 Alan R. Ball and Frances Millard
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Ball, A.R., Millard, F. (1986). Churches and Pressure Group Politics. In: Pressure Politics in Industrial Societies. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-18257-2_7
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