Abstract
Viewed from the perspective of the ancient philosophical tradition, the history of thought in the period c. 1000 to c. 1150 comprises two main strands. First, there is the Aristotelian contribution, which may be fairly said to be the more distinctive. Nothing is so characteristic of the thought of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries as the way in which Aristotle’s logic at once stimulated a desire for intellectual order and was grasped as the means to achieve it. Secondly, there is the Platonist contribution. Directly and indirectly it exercised important influences on the intellectual life of the time. Its most direct influence was on the cosmological speculations of the twelfth century. Some note has already been taken of the Platonist sources on which these rested and more will be said in due course. Of the indirect influences of Platonism, two stand out. The twelfth century sees the revival of a philosophical mysticism based on the Neoplatonist tradition as known especially through the works of the pseudo-Denis. It is associated principally with the school of St Victor at Paris, most notably with Hugh and Richard of St Victor. The second indirect influence of Platonism at this time is the most pervasive of all. It derived from the recognition accorded to St Augustine as the greatest of the Latin fathers.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Bibliographies
A. Bibliography of Works in English
Logical revival and Schools: M. Gibson, ‘The Continuity of Learning circa 850-circa 1050’, Viator, VI (1975), 1–13, is a most useful review of school studies in a neglected period; see also her ‘The Artes in the Eleventh Century’, in Arts Libéraux et Philosophie au Moyen Age (Actes du IVème Congres International de Philosophic Médiévale; Montreal; Paris, 1969) and, a localised treatment
L. M. de Rijk, ‘On the Curriculum of the Arts of the Trivium at St Gall from c. 850-c. 1000’, Vivarium, I (1963), 35–86.
R. L. Benson and G. Constable, with C. D. Lanham, eds, Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century (Oxford, 1982), contains a number of pertinent essays, some of which are specially noted below. On the character of medieval logic in both the central and high periods there is a substantial bibliography, for which see the bibliographical aids cited in section 1, and note
T. Gilby, Barbara Celarent. A Description of Scholastic Dialectic (London, 1949),
E. A. Moody, Truth and Consequence in Mediaeval Logic (Amsterdam, 1952)
L. M. Rijk, Logica Modernorum. A Contribution to the History of Early Terminist Logic, 2 vols (Assen, 1962–7), and Ph. Boehner, Medieval Logic. An Outline of its Development from 1250 to 1400 (Manchester, 1966). More particularly of interest to the subject of the development of logical study in the period is the very clear account by O. Lowry, ‘Boethian Logic in the Medieval West’, in Gibson, ed., Boethius, pp. 90–134. See also N. Kretzmann, ‘The Culmination of the Old Logic in Peter Abelard’, in Benson et al., Renaissance and Renewal, pp. 488–511.
B. Stock, The Implications of Literacy. Written Language and Models of Interpretation in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries (Princeton, 1983), ranges widely over the thinkers considered in this chapter, examining their sensitivity to the relationship between language and reality
J. W. Baldwin, The Scholastic Culture of the Middle Ages 1000–1300 (Lexington, Mass., 1971), is a useful survey of the period.
On Gerbert of Aurillac, see O. G. Darlington, ‘Gerbert, the Teacher’, American Historical Review, LII (1946–7), 456–76.
On Berengar, A. J. MacDonald, Berengar and the Reform of Sacramental Doctrine (London, 1930) but see section B for more recent treatment.
M. Gibson, Lanfranc of Bec (Oxford, 1978),
R. W. Southern, ‘Lanfranc of Bec and Berengar of Tours’, in R. W. Hunt, W. A. Pantin and R. W. Southern, eds, Studies in Medieval History presented to Frederick Maurice Powicke (Oxford, 1948), pp. 27–48.
Anselm of Bec: J. M. Hopkins, A Companion to the Study of St Anselm (Minneapolis, 1972), is very useful.
R. W. Southern, St Anselm and his Biographer (Cambridge, 1963), is standard and a classic.
On aspects of his method, see G. Evans, ‘The Nature of St Anselm’s Appeal to Reason in the Cur Deus Homo’, Studia Theologica, XXXI (1977), 33–50
G. Evans, ‘St Anselm and Sacred History’, in R. H. C. Davis and J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, eds, The Writing of History in the Middle Ages. Essays presented to R. W. Southern (Oxford, 1981), pp. 187–209;
E. J. O’Toole, ‘Anselm’s Logic of Faith’, Analecta Anselmiana, III (Frankfurt/Main, 1972), 146–54.
D. P. Henry, The Logic of St Anselm (Oxford, 1967), is a technical treatment.
R. D. Shofner, Anselm Revisited. A Study of the Role of the Ontological Argument (Leiden, 1974), provides a conspectus of modern interest in Anselm’s method.
Cf., from a philosophical viewpoint, R. R. La Croix, Proslogion II and III. A Third Interpretation of Anselm’s Argument (Leiden, 1972).
G. R. Evans, Anselm and Talking about God (Oxford, 1978), studies the formulation of a theological language.
G. R. Evans, Anselm and a New Generation (Oxford, 1980), discusses Anselm’s influence, and her Old Arts and New Theology, the Beginnings of Theology as an Academic Discipline (Oxford, 1980), is characteristically stimulating on a topic of central concern
G. R. Evans, Alan of Lille, the Frontiers of Theology in the Later Twelfth Century (Cambridge, 1983), provides more material for assessing the contribution of the arts to theology.
J. G. Sikes, Peter Abailard (Cambridge, 1932) needs to be read with more recent treatment, especially as regards the dating of some of Abelard’s works.
L. Grane, Peter Abelard. Philosophy and Christianity in the Middle Ages (English tr.; London, 1970), is very readable
M. T. Beonio-Brocchieri Fumagalli, The Logic of Abelard (English tr.; Dordrecht, 1969), contains an account of the relationship of his logical works and examines his method
M. M. Tweedale, Abailard on Universals (Amsterdam; New York; Oxford, 1976), is a convenient presentation, with analysis, of his texts on this question
R. E. Weingart, The Logic of Divine Love. A Critical Analysis of the Soteriology of Peter Abelard (Oxford, 1970), is an illuminating study
D. A. Luscombe, The School of Peter Abelard (Cambridge, 1969), is essential for Abelard’s context, influence and critics
E. M. Buytaert, ed., Peter Abelard (Louvain; the Hague, 1974), consists of conference papers, with several of importance, in French and English
P. L. Williams, The Moral Philosophy of Peter Abelard (Lanham, Maryland, 1980)
Pierre Abélard, Pierre le Vénérable. Les Courants Philosophiques, Littéraires et Artistiques en Occident au Milieu du XIIe Siècle, ed. R. Louis, J. Jolivet and J. Chatillon (Paris, 1975), pp. 341–403
R. Klibansky, ‘Peter Abelard and Bernard of Clairvaux’, Mediaeval and Renaissance Studies, V (1961), 1–27, is a good, general account of the different perspectives.
O. Brooke, ‘The Speculative Development of the Trinitarian Theology of William of St Thierry in the Aenigma Fidei’, Recherches de Théologie Ancienne et Médiévale, XXVII (1960), 193–211; XXVIII (1961), 26–58, is an enlightening account of William’s use of his sources and the point of his hostility to Abelard.
Gilbert of Poitiers: N. M. Häring, ‘The Case of Gilbert de la Porrée, Bishop of Poitiers 1142–1154’, Mediaeval Studies, XIII (1951), 1–40.
L. O. Nielsen, Theology and Philosophy in the Twelfth Century: A Study of Gilbert Porreta’s Thinking and the Theological Expositions of the Doctrine of the Incarnation during the Period 1130–1180 (Leiden, 1982).
John of Salisbury: C. C. J. Webb, John of Salisbury (London, 1932).
H. Liebeschutz, Mediaeval Humanism in the Life and Writings of John of Salisbury (London, 1950).
R. H. and M. A. Rouse, ‘John of Salisbury and the doctrine of Tyrannicide’, Speculum, XLII (1967), 693–709, examines a crux of political theory of interest also for thirteenth-century treatment of the same problem.
R. W. Southern, ‘Aspects of the European Tradition of Historical Writing: 2. Hugh of St Victor and the Idea of Historical Development’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser. XXI (1971), 159–79, discusses the theme with reference to the De Sacramentis.
R. Klibansky, ‘Standing on the Shoulders of Giants’, Isis, XXVI (1936), 147–9, on a famous phrase.
R. W. Southern, Medieval Humanism and Other Studies (Oxford, 1970), contains his important critique of the ‘school of Chartres’ and is otherwise of interest
For other accounts of ‘Chartres’ see N. Häring, ‘Chartres and Paris Revisited’, in J. R. O’Donnell, ed., Essays in honour of Anton Charles Pegis (Toronto, 1974), pp. 268–329
P. Dronke, ‘New Approaches to the School of Chartres’, Anuario de Estudios Medievales, VI (1969), 117–40
R. Giacone, ‘Masters, Books and Library at Chartres according to the Cartularies of Notre-Dame and Saint-Père’, Vivarium, XII (1974), 30–51
Cf. also R. W. Southern, Platonism, Scholastic Method and the School of Chartres (The Stenton Lecture, 1978; University of Reading, 1979), for an examination of the ‘Platonism’ of ‘Chartres’, and his ‘The Schools of Paris and the School of Chartres’, in Benson et al., Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, pp. 113–37.
Whatever the view taken of ‘Chartres’, twelfth-century cosmology loses none of its interest, see: N. M. Häring, ‘The Creation and Creator of the World according to Thierry of Chartres and Clarembaldus of Arras’, AHDLMA, XXII (1955), 137–216; S. Gersh, ‘Platonism-Neoplatonism-Aristotelianism: a Twelfth century Metaphysical System and its Sources’, in Benson et al., Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, pp. 512–34
J. Silverstein, ‘Elementatum: its Appearance among the Twelfth Century Cosmogonists’, Mediaeval Studies, XVI (1954), 156–62
M. Gibson, ‘The Study of the “Timaeus” in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries’, Pensamiento, XXV (1969), 183–94, on a principal source.
P. Dronke, Fabula. Explorations into the Uses of Myth in Medieval Platonism (Leiden; Cologne, 1974)
W. Wetherbee, Platonism and Poetry The Literary Influence of the School of Chartres (Princeton, 1972)
B. Stock, Myth and Science in the Twelfth Century. A Study of Bernard Silvester (Princeton, 1972), share interests.
M. D. Chenu, Nature, Man and Society in the Twelfth Century (Chicago, 1968), is selected chapters from his La Théologie au Douzième Siècle.
S. Kuttner, ‘Gratian and Plato’, in C. N. L. Brooke et al., eds, Church and Government in the Middle Ages. Essays presented to C. R. Cheney (Cambridge, 1976), on a particular aspect of the philosophical influence and see other bibliography there for the philosophical influence on legal theory.
B. Smalley, ‘Ecclesiastical Attitudes to Novelty c. 1100–1250’, Studies in Church History, XII (1975), 113–33, considers the appreciation of change as development as both regards religious organisation and intellectual outlook.
R. M. Thomson, ‘England and the Twelfth Century Renaissance’, Past and Present, CI (1983), 3–21, reopens this subject with interesting reflections on the geography and regional character of learning.
B. Bibliography of Works in Other Languages
Schools: P. Riché, Les Ecoles et l’Enseignement dans l’Occident Chrétien de la Fin du Ve Siécle au Milieu du XIe Siècle (Paris, 1979). La Scuola nell’ Occidente Latino dell’ Alto Medioevo (Settimane di Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull’ Alto Medioevo; 2 vols, Spoleto, 1972), has particularly important sections on the school from Cassiodorus to Alcuin, and the Carolingian school from Alcuin to Remigius of Auxerre. See too G. Beaujean, ‘L’Enseignement du “Quadrivium”’, ibid., pp. 639–67
L. Minio-Paluello, ‘Nuovi impulsi allo studio della logica: la seconda fase della riscoperta di Aristotele e di Boezio’, ibid., pp. 743–66; J. Chatillon, ‘Les Ecoles de Chartres et de Saint Victor’, ibid., pp. 795–839. G. Paré, A. Brunet and P. Tremblay, La Renaissance du XIIe Siècle: les Ecoles et l’Enseignement (Paris; Ottawa, 1933)
P. Delhaye, ‘L’Organisation Scolaire au XIIe Siècle’, Traditio, V (1947), 211–68, which is a useful, brief review of the educational context before the universities.
Schools: P. Riché, Les Ecoles et l’Enseignement dans l’Occident Chrétien de la Fin du Ve Siécle au Milieu du XIe Siècle (Paris, 1979).
La Scuola nell’ Occidente Latino dell’ Alto Medioevo (Settimane di Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull’ Alto Medioevo; 2 vols, Spoleto, 1972), has particularly important sections on the school from Cassiodorus to Alcuin, and the Carolingian school from Alcuin to Remigius of Auxerre. See too G. Beaujean, ‘L’Enseignement du “Quadrivium”’, ibid., pp. 639–67; L. Minio-Paluello, ‘Nuovi impulsi allo studio della logica: la seconda fase della riscoperta di Aristotele e di Boezio’, ibid., pp. 743–66; J. Chatillon, ‘Les Ecoles de Chartres et de Saint Victor’, ibid., pp. 795–839. G. Paré, A. Brunet and P. Tremblay, La Renaissance du XIIe Siècle: les Ecoles et l’Enseignement (Paris; Ottawa, 1933)
see also, P. Delhaye, ‘L’Organisation Scolaire au XIIe Siècle’, Traditio, V (1947), 211–68, which is a useful, brief review of the educational context before the universities.
E. Lesne, Histoire de la Propriété Ecclésiastique en France, 6 vols in 8 (Lille, 1910–43), V (1940): Les Ecoles de la Fin du Ville Siècle a la Fin du XIIe Siècle, has a wealth of information.
Logic: A. van de Vyver, ‘Les Etapes du Développement Philosophique du Haut Moyen-Age’, Revue Belge de Philologie et d’Histoire, VII (1929), 425–52
Minio-Paluello, ‘Nuovi impulsi’. Jean Isaac, Le Peri Hermeneias en Occident de Boèce à Saint Thomas (Paris, 1953)
on this book of Aristotle’s Organon. J. Reiners, Der Nominalismus in der Frühscholastik (BGPMA, vol. VIII, Part 5; Münster, 1910)
on one aspect. On a major figure, F. Picavet, Gerbert un Pape Philosophe d’après l’Histoire et d’abrès la Légende (Paris, 1897)
U. Lindgren, Gerbert von Aurillac und das Quadrivium: Untersuchungen zur Bildung im Zeitalter der Ottonen (Wiesbaden, 1976).
J. Gonzette, Pierre Damien et la Culture Profane (Louvain; Paris, 1956), on this figure.
J. de Montclos, Lanfranc et Bérenger, la Controverse Eucharistique du XIe Siècle (Louvain, 1971), is the fullest study of the dispute.
J. de Montclos, Lanfranc et Bérenger, la Controverse Eucharistique du XIe Siècle (Louvain, 1971), is the fullest study of the dispute. A. Cantin, ‘Ratio et Auctoritas dans Ia Premiere Phase de Ia Controverse Eucharistique entre Béranger et Lanfranc’, Revue des Etudes Augustiniennes, XX (1974), 155–86, discusses the application of logic to theology.
Anselm of Bec: the best general study is in English. More recent treatment of particular aspects includes: R. Pouchet, La Rectitudo chez Saint Anselme Un Itinéraire Augustinien de l’Ame à Dieu (Paris, 1964), on a concept which involves philosophical and theological insights, especially bearing on soteriology
F. S. Schmitt, ‘Anselm und der (Neu-) Platonismus’, Analecta Anselmiana, I (Frankfurt/Main, 1969), 39–71, which re-examines Anseim’s Platonism on a number of specific points: K. Flasch, ‘Der Philosophische Ansatz des Anselm von Canterbury im Monologion und sein Verhältnis zum Augustinischen Neuplatonismus’, ibid., II (Frankfurt/Main, 1970), 1–43
P. Mazzarella, ‘L’Esemplarismo in Anselmo d’Aosta e in Bonaventura da Bagnoregio’, ibid., I, 145–64, which examines the role of creation as an image of the creator in both thinkers. See also R. Javelet, Image et Rassemblance au Douzième Siècle de Saint Anselme à Alain de Lille, 2 vols (Strasbourg, 1967).
M.-Th. d’Alverny, ‘Achard de Saint Victor, Evêque d’Avranches — Disciple de Saint Anselme’, Analecta Anselmiana, II (Frankfurt/Main, 1970), 217–22, briefly places this figure within the tradition.
Peter Abelard and contemporary theology: J. Jolivet, Arts du Langage et Théologie chez Abélard (Paris, 1969).
J. Cottiaux, ‘La Conception de la Théologie chez Abelard’, Revue d’Histoire Ecclésiastique, XXVIII (1932), 247–95, 535–51, 787–828 (defending Abelard’s orthodoxy, with close textual analysis).
R. Thomas, ed., Petrus Abaelardus (1079–1142) Person, Werk und Wirkung (Trier, 1980).
E. Bertola, ‘Le Critiche di Abelard ad Anselmo di Laon ed a Guglielmo di Champeaux’, Rivista di Filosofia Neo-Scolastica, LII (1960), 495–522 (discussing the historical value of Abelard’s criticisms of his masters).
A. M. Landgraf, Introduction à l’Histoire de la Littérature Théologique de la Scolastique Naissante (Montreal; Paris, 1973)
Landgraf, Einführung in die Geschichte der theologischen Literatur der Frühscholastik (Regensburg, 1948).
M.-D. Chenu, La Théologie au Douzième Siècle (Paris, 1957) (collected studies on the theme).
R. Blomme, La Doctrine du Péché dans les Ecoles Théologiques de la Première Moitié du XIIe Siècle (Louvain, 1958), on a theological theme which has an interest for Abelard’s views.
A. Lang, Die theologische Prinzipienlehre der mittelalterlichen Scholastik (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1964), studies the development of theological method.
J. de Ghellinck, Le Mouvement Théologique du XIIe Siècle (2nd edn; Bruges; Paris, 1948), especially for the context of Peter Lombard.
P. Delhaye, Pierre Lombard, sa Vie, ses Oeuvres, sa Morale (Montreal; Paris, 1961). Several studies helpfully focus on aspects of the influence of the liberal arts programme on the philosophical-theological movement
M.-D. Chenu, ‘Grammaire et Théologie aux XIIe et XIIIe Siècles’, AHDLMA, X (1936), 5–28
J. Jolivet, ‘Elements pour une Etude des Rapports entre la Grammaire et l’Ontologie au Moyen Age’, in J. P. Beckmann et al., eds, Sprache und Erkenntnis im Mittelalter, 2 vols (Berlin; New York, 1981), I, 135–64
P. Delhaye, ‘L’Enseignement de la Philosophie Morale au XIIe Siecle’, Mediaeval Studies, XI (1949), 77–99
Peter Abelard and contemporary theology: J. Jolivet, Arts du Langage et Théologie chez Abélard (Paris, 1969). J. Cottiaux, ‘La Conception de la Théologie chez Abelard’, Revue d’Histoire Ecclésiastique, XXVIII (1932), 247–95, 535–51, 787–828 (defending Abelard’s orthodoxy, with close textual analysis). R. Thomas, ed., Petrus Abaelardus (1079–1142) Person, Werk und Wirkung (Trier, 1980). E. Bertola, ‘Le Critiche di Abelard ad Anselmo di Laon ed a Guglielmo di Champeaux’, Rivista di Filosofia Neo-Scolastica, LII (1960), 495–522 (discussing the historical value of Abelard’s criticisms of his masters). A. M. Landgraf, Introduction à l’Histoire de la Littérature Théologique de la Scolastique Naissante (Montreal; Paris, 1973), is a translation with revision of Landgraf, Einführung in die Geschichte der theologischen Literatur der Frühscholastik (Regensburg, 1948). M.-D. Chenu, La Théologie au Douzième Siècle (Paris, 1957) (collected studies on the theme). R. Blomme, La Doctrine du Péché dans les Ecoles Théologiques de la Première Moitié du XIIe Siècle (Louvain, 1958), on a theological theme which has an interest for Abelard’s views. A. Lang, Die theologische Prinzipienlehre der mittelalterlichen Scholastik (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1964), studies the development of theological method. J. de Ghellinck, Le Mouvement Théologique du XIIe Siècle (2nd edn; Bruges; Paris, 1948), especially for the context of Peter Lombard. P. Delhaye, Pierre Lombard, sa Vie, ses Oeuvres, sa Morale (Montreal; Paris, 1961). Several studies helpfully focus on aspects of the influence of the liberal arts programme on the philosophical-theological movement; see: M.-D. Chenu, ‘Grammaire et Théologie aux XIIe et XIIIe Siècles’, AHDLMA, X (1936), 5–28; J. Jolivet, ‘Elements pour une Etude des Rapports entre la Grammaire et l’Ontologie au Moyen Age’, in J. P. Beckmann et al., eds, Sprache und Erkenntnis im Mittelalter, 2 vols (Berlin; New York, 1981), I, 135–64; P. Delhaye, ‘L’Enseignement de la Philosophie Morale au XIIe Siecle’, Mediaeval Studies, XI (1949), 77–99: cf. Delhaye, “Grammatica” et “Ethica” au XIIe Siècle’, Recherches de Théologie Ancienne et Médiévale, XXV (1958), 59–110.
Gilbert of Poitiers: H. C. van Elswijk, Gilbert Porreta, sa Vie, son Oeuvre, sa Pensée (Louvain, 1966), and particularly on the controversy surrounding him
A. Hayen, ‘Le Concile de Reims et l’Erreur Théologique de Gilbert de la Porrée’, AHDLMA, X (1935–6), 29–102.
M.-D. Chenu, ‘Platon à Cîteaux’, AHDLMA, XXI (1954), 99–106, criticises the tendency to distinguish too sharply between a theology hostile to the philosophical strand and the intellectualist approach.
Hugh of St Victor: R. Baron, Science et Sagesse chez Hugues de Saint-Victor (Paris, 1957) and Etudes sur Hugues de Saint-Victor (Desclée de Brouwer, [Paris], 1963)
D. van den Eynde, Essai sur la Succession et la Date des Ecrits de Hugues de St-Victor (Rome, 1960).
T. Gregory, Platonismo Medievale Studi e Ricerche (Rome, 1958)
E. Garin, Studi sul Platonismo Medievale (Florence, 1958), are important for this strand. For brief and specific treatment
see E. Jeauneau, ‘L’Héritage de la Philosophie Antique durant le Haut Moyen Age’, in Settimana di Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull’ Alto Medioevo, XXII (Spoleto, 1975), 17–54.
see: E. Jeauneau, “Nani gigantum humeris insidentes”, Essai d’Interpretation de Bernard de Chartres’, Vivarium, V (1967), 79–99, and ‘Le Prologue in Eptatheucon de Thierry de Chartres’, Mediaeval Studies, XVI (1954), 171–5
T. Gregory, Anima Mundi La Filosofia di Guglielmo di Conches e la Scuola di Chartres (Florence, 1955). On the ‘school’
E. Jeauneau, ‘Note sur l’Ecole de Chartres’, Studi Medievali, 3rd series, V (1964) 821–65, and ‘Macrobe, source du Platonisme Chartrain’, Studi Medievali, 3rd series, I (1960), 3–24
J. M. Parent, La Doctrine de la Création dans l’Ecole de Chartres (Paris; Ottawa, 1938).
M.-T. d’Alverny, ‘Le Cosmos Symbolique du XIIe Siècle’, AHDLMA, XX (1953), 69–81. On the influence of medical theory
A. Birkenmajer, Le Role Joué par les Midecins et les Naturalistes dans la Réception d’Aristote aux XIIe et XIIIe Siècles (La Pologne au VIe Congrès International des Sciences Historiques; Warsaw, 1930)
H. Schipperges, ‘Einflüsse arabischer Medezin aufdie Mikrokosmosliteratur des 12. Jahrhunderts’, in Antike und Orient im Mittelalter: Vorträge der Kölner Mediaevisfenangung 1956–1959, ed. P. Wilpert (Berlin, 1962; Miscellanea Mediaevalia, I), pp. 129–53.
Copyright information
© 1985 Michael Haren
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Haren, M. (1985). The Central Middle Ages — Logic, Theology and Cosmology. In: Medieval Thought. New Studies in Medieval History. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-17856-8_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-17856-8_4
Publisher Name: Palgrave, London
Print ISBN: 978-0-333-29464-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-349-17856-8
eBook Packages: Palgrave Religion & Philosophy CollectionPhilosophy and Religion (R0)