Abstract
Growth and development are the two distinctive biological processes of childhood. Growth denotes increase in size which may be due to either increase in the number of cells or the enlargement of each individual cell. Development denotes acquisition of function by a tissue, an organ or the individual. But there is much more to growth than suggested by such a simplistic definition. There is a continuing process of incorporation of new material into cells by a process of turnover and continuous flow. Different substances turn over at different rates. For example, in the adult 2 to 3 per cent muscle protein is replaced daily and in children the turnover is about three times that in adults. Nitrogen molecules remain in the body for a week or two, calcium for a matter of months, lipids in myelin for even longer and so on. Thus, all the building blocks of the body are in a state of flux, within which a pattern of tissues and organs constitute the human frame. This continuously changing and dynamic state requires constant adaptation to environment. Body tissues grow or renew themselves by obtaining the necessary nutrients and other building blocks out of the environment. The energy for the turnover of the various substances and building blocks is obtained through metabolism by the burning of food (figure 2.1).
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Tanner, J. M. Foetus into Man—physical growth from conception to maturity. Open Books, London. 1978.
Tanner, J. M. The assessment of growth and development in children. Archs. Dis. Childh. (1952) 27, 10–33.
Goss, R. J. (Ed.) Regulation of organ and tissue growth. Academic Press, New York. 1972.
Widdowsen, E. M. Cellular growth and function. Proc. Nutr. Soc. (1976) 35, 357–62.
Prader, A., Tanner, J. M. and Harnack, G. A. von. Catch-up growth following illness or starvation. J. Pediat. (1963) 62, 646–59.
Prader, A. ‘Catch-up growth.’ In: D. Barltrop. (Ed.) Pediatrics and growth. Fellowship of Postgraduate Medicine, London. 1978.
Winick, M. and Noble, A. Cellular response in rats during malnutrition at various ages. J. Nutr. (1966) 89, 300.
Marshall, W. A. and Tanner, J. M. ‘Puberty’. In: J. A. Davis and J. Dobbing (Eds.) Scientific foundations of paediatrics. Heinemann, London. 1974.
Marshall, W. A. and Tanner, J. M. Variations in the pattern of pubertal changes in girls. Archs Dis. Childh. (1969) 44, 291–303.
Jones, H. E. Motor performance and growth. A developmental study of static dynamometric strength. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1949.
Ebrahim, G. J. ‘Troubled teens.’ In: Child care in the tropics. Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1978.
Garn, S. M. and Bailey, S. M. ‘The genetics of maturational process.’ In: F. Falkner, and J. Tanner (Eds.) Human growth. Vol. 2. Plenum, New York. 1978.
Van Wieringen, J. C. ‘Secular growth changes.’ In: F. Falkner and J. M. Tanner (Eds.) Human Growth Vol. 1. Plenum, New York. 1978.
Tanner, J. M. Trend toward earlier menarche in London, Oslo, Copenhagen, the Netherlands and Hungary. Nature (1973) 243, 95.
Tanner, J. M. and Whitehouse, R. H. Clinical longitudinal standards for height, weight, height velocity and weight velocity and the stages of puberty. Archs Dis. Childh. (1970) 51, 170–9.
Morley, D. C. A health and weight chart for use in developing countries. Trop. geog. Med. (1968) 20, 101.
Gomez, F. et al. Mortality in 2nd and 3rd degree malnutrition. J. trop. Pediat. (1956) 2, 77.
World Health Organization. A growth chart for international use on Maternal and Child Health Care. Guidelines for primary health care personnel. WHO, Geneva, 1978.
Morley, D. C. Growth Charts—‘curative’ or ‘preventive’? Archs Dis. Childh. (1977) 52, 395–8.
Jordan, J. R. Desarrollo humano en Cuba. Ministerio de Cultura, Editorial Cientifico-Techica, Ciudad de la Habana 4. 1979.
Goldstein, H. and Tanner, J. M. Ecological considerations in the creation and use of child growth standards. Lancet (1980) i, 582–5.
Waterlow, J. C. Classification and definition of protein energy malnutrition. In: G. H. Beaton and J. M. Bengoa (Eds.) Nutrition in preventive medicine. Monograph Ser. WHO, No. 62. 1976.
Durnin, J. G. V. A. and Rahaman, M. M. The assessment of the total amount of fat in the human body from measurements of skinfold thickness. Br. J. Nutr. (1967) 21, 681–9.
Brook, C. G. D. Determination of body composition of children from skinfold measurements. Archs Dis. Childh. (1971) 46, 182–4.
Haisman, M. F. The assessment of body fat content in young men from measurements of density and skinfold thickness. Human Biology (1970) 42, 679–88.
Tanner, J. M. and Whitehouse, R. H. Revised standards for triceps and subscapular skinfolds in British children. Archs Dis. Childh. (1975) 50, 142.
Shakir, A. The surveillance of protein-calorie malnutrition by simple and economical means. J. trop. Pediat. (1978) 21, 69.
Anderson, M. Comparison of anthropometric measures of nutritional status in pre-school children in five developing countries. Am. J. clin. Nutr. (1979) 32, 2339–45.
Cameron, N. The growth of London school children 1904–1966: an analysis of secular trend and intra-country variation. Annals of Human Biology (1979) 6, 505–25.
Lindgron, G. Height, weight and menarche in Swedish urban school children in relation to socio-economic and regional factors. Annals of Human Biology (1976) 3, 501–28.
Khosla, T. and Lowe, C. R. Height and weight of British men. Lancet (1968) i, 742–5.
Habicht, J. P., Martorell, R., Yarborough, C., Malina, R. M. and Klein, R. E. Height and weight standards of pre-school children. Lancet (1974) i, 611–15.
Standard, K. L., Desai, P. and Miall, W. E. A longitudinal study of child growth in a rural community in Jamaica. J. Biosoc. Sci. (1969) 1, 153–76.
Rutishauser, I. H. E. Growth of the pre-school child in West Mengo district, Uganda. In: R. Owor, V. L. Ongom and B. G. Kirya (Eds.) The Child in the African environment — growth, development and survival. The East African Literature Bureau, Nairobi, 1975.
Falkner, F., Pernot, Roy M. P., Habich, H., Senecal, J. and Masse, G. Some international comparisons of physical growth in the two first years of life. Courrier (1958) 8, 1–11.
Gopalan, C. Kwashiorkor and marasmus. Evolution and distinguishing features. In: R. A. McCance and E. M. Widdowson (Eds.) Calorie deficiency and protein deficiency. Churchill, London. 1968.
Rowland, M. G. M., Cole, T. J. and Whitehead, R. G. Protein-energy malnutrition. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. (1978) 72, 550–1.
Mata, L. The malnutrition-infection complex and its environment factors. Proc. Nutr. Soc. (1979) 38, 29–39.
Church, M. Dietary factors in malnutrition: quality and quantity of diet in relation to child development. Proc. Nutr. Soc. (1979) 38, 41–9.
Food and Agricultural Organization and World Health Organization. Dietary fats and oils in human nutrition. FAO. Rome. 1977.
Ljungqvist, B. G., Mellander, O. and Svanberg, U. S. O. Dietary bulk as a limiting factor for nutrient intake in pre-school children. J. trop. Pediat. (1981) 27, 68–73, 127–35, 184–9.
George, S. How the other half dies. The real reasons for world hunger. Penguin, Harmondsworth, Middlesex. 1976.
Schuftan, C. The challenge of feeding the people: Chile under Allende and Tanzania under Nyerere. Social Sci. Med. (1979) 13C, 97–107.
Myrdal, G. Challenge of world poverty. A world anti-poverty programme in outline. Penguin, Harmondsworth, Middlesex. 1970.
Parkin, J. M. A longitudinal study of village children in Uganda: pattern of illness during the second year of life. In: R. Owor, V. L. Ongom and B. G. Kirya. (Eds.) The Child in the African environment. East African Literature Bureau, Nairobi. 1975.
Whitehead, R. G. Infection and the development of kwashiorkor and marasmus in Africa. Am. J. clin. Nutr. (1977) 30, 1281–4.
Martorell, R., Yarbrough, C., Yarbrough, S. and Klein, R. E. The impact of ordinary illnesses on the dietary intakes of malnourished children. Am. J. clin. Nutr. (1980) 33, 345–50.
Beisel, W. R. Interrelated changes in host metabolism during generalised infectious illness. Am. J. clin. Nutr. (1972) 25, 1254–60.
Beisel, W. R. Magnitude of the host nutritional responses to infection. Am. J. clin. Nutr. (1977) 30, 1236–47.
Whitehead, R. G. Protein and energy requirements of young children living in the developing countries to allow for catch-up growth after infections. Am. J. clin. Nutr. (1977) 30, 1545–7.
Morley, D. C. Measles in the developing world. Proc R. Soc Med. (1974) 67, 1112–15.
Hirschhorn et al. A positive effect on the nutrition of Philippine children of an oral glucose-electrolyte solution given at home for the treatment of diarrhoea: report of a field trial by an international group. Bull. Wld Hlth Org. (1977) 55, 87–94.
Barzgar, M. A., Ourshano, S. and Amini, J. N. The evaluation of the effectiveness of oral rehydration in acute diarrhoea of children under three years of age in West Azarbaijan, Iran. J. trop. Pediat. (1980) 26, 217–22.
Mata, L. J., Urrutia, J. J., Kronmal, R. A. and Joplin, C. Survival and physical growth in infancy and early childhood: study of birth weight and gestational age in a Guatemalan Indian village. Am. J. Dis. Child. (1975) 129, 561–6.
Douglas, J. W. B., Mogford, C. The results of a national enquiry into the growth of premature children from birth to 4 years. Archs Dis. Childh. (1953) 28, 436–45.
Miller, F. J. W., Billewicz, W. Z., Thomson, A. M. Growth from birth to adult life of 442 Newcastle upon Tyne children. Br. J. prev. soc. Med. (1972) 26: 224–30.
Babson, S. G. Growth of low birth weight infants. J. Pediat. (1970) 77, 11–18.
Fitzgerald, P. M., Steven, E. M. The small for date infant. I: Later growth patterns. Pediatrics (1972) 49, 671–81.
Goldstein, H. Factors influencing the height of seven year old children—results from the National Child Development Study. Human Biology (1971) 43, 92–111.
Douglas, J. W. B. and Simpson, H. Height in relation to puberty, family size and social class. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly (1964) 42, 20–35.
Scott, J. A. Report on the heights and weights of school pupils in the county of London in 1959. London County Council, 1961.
Grant, M. W. Rate of growth in relation to birth rank and family size. Br. J. prev. soc. Med. 18: 35–42.
Sokol, R. J., Miller, S. I. and Reed, G. Alcohol abuse during pregnancy: an epidemiologic study. Alcoholism (1980) 4: 135–45.
Janes, M. D. The effect of social class on the physical growth of Nigerian Yoruba children. Bull. int. epidemiol. Ass. (1970) 20, 127–36.
Phadke, M. V. and Kulkarni, H. D. Growth and development in the under-privileged sections in the Bombay area. Proc. Nutr. Soc. India (1971) 10, 164–76.
Villarejos, V. M., Osborne, J. A., Payne, F. J. and Arguedas, J. A. Heights and weights of children in urban and rural Costa Rica. J. trop. Pediat. (1971) 17, 31–43.
Culwick, G. M. Diet in the Gezira irrigated area of the Sudan. Sudan Survey Department No. 304, Khartoum, Sudan. 1951.
Taha, S. A. Household food consumption in 5 villages in the Sudan. Ecol. Food Nutr. (1978) 7, 137–42.
Taha, S. A. Ecologic factors underlying protein-calorie malnutrition in an irrigated area of the Sudan. Ecol. Food Nutr. (1979) 7, 193–201.
Sukkar, M. T., Kemm, J. R., Makeen, A. M. and Khalid, M. H. Anthropometric survey of children in rural Khartoum, Sudan. Ann. Human Biology (1979) 6, 147–58.
Desai, P., Standard, K. L. and Miall, N. E. Socio-economic and cultural influences on child growth in rural Jamaica. J. Biosoc. Sci. (1970) 2, 133–43.
Grantham-McGregor, S. M., Desai, P. and Buchanan, E. The identification of infants at risk of malnutrition in Kingston, Jamaica. Trop. geogr. Med. (1977) 29, 165–71.
Eveleth, P. B. and Tanner, J. M. Worldwide variation in human growth. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1976.
Lindgren, G. Height, weight and menarche in Swedish urban school children in relation to socio-economic and regional factors. Ann. Human Biology (1976) 3, 501–28.
Graffar, M. L’influence des facteurs sociaux sur la croissance et le developpement de l’enfant. Assignment Children (1971) 15, 23–35.
Pringle, M. K. Policy implications of child development studies. Assignment Children (1971) 15, 113–25.
Skodak, M. and Skoels, H. A final follow-up study of one hundred adopted children. J. Genet. Psychol. (1949) 75, 85–125.
Dinnage, R. and Pringle, M. K. Residential child care — facts and fallacies. Longman, London. 1967.
Birch, H. G. and Gussow, J. D. Disadvantaged children: Health, nutrition and school failure. Grune & Stratton, New York. 1970.
Birch, H. G. and Richardson, S. A. ‘The functioning of Jamaican school children severely malnourished during the first two years of life.’ In: Nutrition, the nervous system and behaviour. P. 64–72. Scientific Publication No. 25, Pan American Health Organization, Washington. 1972.
Cravioto, J. and Delicardie, E. ‘Environmental correlates of severe clinical malnutrition and language development in survivors from kwashiorkor or marasmus.’ In: Nutrition, the nervous system and behaviour. P. 73–94. Scientific Publication No. 25, Pan American Health Organization, Washington. 1972.
Mead, M. ‘Contemporary implications of the state of the art.’ In: L. S. Greene. (Ed.) Malnutrition behaviour and social organization. P. 253–65. Academic Press, New York & London. 1977.
Gwaltney, J. The thrice shy. Columbia University Press, New York. 1970.
Trevarthen, C. ‘Neuroembryology and the development of perception.’ In: F. Falkner and J. M. Tanner. (Eds.) Human Growth. Vol. 3. Neurobiology and Nutrition. Plenum Press, N.Y. 1979.
Lewis, M. Infants’ responses to facial stimuli during the first year of life. Dev. Psychol.. (1969) 1, 75–86.
Eisenberg, R. B. Auditory competence in early life: The roots of communicative behaviour. University Park Press, Baltimore. 1975.
Bryant, P. E. Cognitive development. Br. med. Bull. (1971) 27, 200–5.
Hutchison, D., Prosser, H. and Wedge, P. Prediction of educational failure. Educational Studies (1979) 1, 73–82.
Rutter, M., Cox, A., Tupling, C., Berger, M. and Yule, W. Attainment and adjustment in two geographical areas. I: The prevalence of psychiatric disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry (1975) 126, 493–509.
West, D. J. and Farrington, D. P. The delinquent way of life. Heinemann, London, 1977.
Dennis, W. Children of the creche. Appleton-Century-Croft, N.Y. 1973.
Garber, H. and Heber, F. R. ‘The Milwaukee project: indications of the effectiveness of early intervention in preventing mental retardation.’ In: P. Mittler. (Ed.) Research to practice in mental retardation. Vol. 1 Care and intervention. University Park Press, Baltimore. 1977.
Rutter, M. and Madge, N. Cycles of disadvantage: a review of research. Heinemann, London. 1976.
Spinetta, J. J. and Rigler, D. The child-abusing parent: a psychological review. Psychological Bulletin (1972) 77, 296–304.
World Health Organization. Child mental health and psychosocial development. Tech. Rep. Ser. WHO, No. 613. WHO, Geneva. 1977.
Sameroff, A. and Chandler, M. ‘Reproductive risks and the continuum of caretaking casualty.’ In: F. Horowitz. (Ed.) Review of child development research. Vol. 4. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1975.
Werner, E., Bierman, J. and French, F. The children of Kanai: A longitudinal study from the perinatal period to age ten. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 1971.
Rothleast, M. K. Birth order and mother-child interaction in an achievement situation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. (1971) 17, 113–20.
Rutter, M. Maternal Deprivation, 1972–1978. New findings, new concepts, new approaches. Child Development (1979) 50, 288–305.
Pollack, M. To-day’s three year olds in London. Heinemann, London. 1972.
Pollack, M. Nine year old. MTP Press Ltd., Lancaster. 1979.
Graham, P. Child Psychiatry, recent epidemiologic findings. Archs franc. Pediat. (1978) 35, 810–14.
Richman, N., Stevenson, J., Graham, P. Prevalence of behaviour problems in three year old children: an epidemiologic study in a London borough. J. Child Psychol. and Psychiat.. (1975) 16, 272.
Rutter, M., Tizard, J. and Whitmore, K. (Eds.) Education, health and behaviour. Longman, London, 1970.
Graham, P. and Rutter, M. Psychiatric disorder in the young adolescent. Proc. R. Soc. Med. (1973) 66, 1226–9.
Rutter, M., Tizard, J., Yule, W., Graham, P., Whitmore, K. Research report, Isle of Wight Studies 1964–1974. Psychological Medicine (1976) 6, 313–32.
Rutter, M. Why are London children so disturbed. Proc. R.Soc.Med.. (1973) 66, 1221–5.
Copyright information
© 1982 World Health Organisation
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ebrahim, G.J. (1982). Growth and development of the young infant and the older child. In: Child Health in a Changing Environment. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-17031-9_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-17031-9_2
Publisher Name: Palgrave, London
Print ISBN: 978-0-333-34258-9
Online ISBN: 978-1-349-17031-9
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)