Abstract
Contemporary discussions among Muslims on the Caliphate and Islamic state, outlined in the preceding two chapters, have in many ways been the continuation of Islamic political thought as known in history. They have involved issues which are immanent in Islamic culture, however much the rhythm and the accent of each phase of the discussions may have been determined by developments in the contacts between Muslims and the outside world. Despite the occasional venturings of some Muslim thinkers into unfamiliar grounds, such as the question of separation of powers or the theory of revolution, the basic questions they reviewed — the canonical foundations of the Caliphate, the deviations of the Caliph from the Sharī‘ah, the functions of the ‘people who loose and bind’, and the attributes of an Islamic state — remained close to the original sources of Islamic law and ethics.
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References
Rifā‘ah Rāfi‘ aṭ-Ṭahṭāwī, Manāhij al-albāb al-‘aṣriyyah fī mabāhij al-ādāb al‘aṣriyyah (Cairo, 1912) p. 99. See also Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought, p. 99.
On ‘Abd Allāh Nadīm’s concept of waṭan, see Angelo Sammarco, Histoire de l’Égypte Moderne (Cairo, 1937) p. 318.
Shaykh Ḥusayn Marṣafī, Al-kalim ath-thamān (Cairo, 1298/1880–1) pp. 2–15.
Sylvia Haim, ‘Islam and the Theory of Arab Nationalism’, Die Welt des Islams (New Series), IV (1956) pp. 132–3.
Hisham Sharabi, Arab Intellectuals and the West (London, 1970) p. 119.
‘Abd ar-Raḥmān al-Bazzāz, Min waḥy al-‘urūbah (Cairo, n.d.) (hereafter cited as Bazzāz, Min waḥy al-‘urūbah) p. 199.
Ibid. p. 200.
Ibid. p. 200–1.
Ibid. p. 206, see also Bazzāz’s other book, Hādhih qawmiyyatunā (Cairo, 1964) p. 62.
Muḥammad Darwazah, Al-waḥda’ al-‘Arabiyyah (Beirut, 1957) pp. 60 ff., also Nash’at’ al-ḥarakať al-‘Arabiyyať al-ḥadīthah (Beirut, 1949) pp. 10–14.
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Abdu’l ‘Azīz ad-Dawrī, ‘Al-juzūr at-tārīkhiyyah li’l-qawmiyyať al-‘Arabiyyah’ in Dirāsāť al-qawmiyyah (Beirut, 1960) p. 13. For Rashīd Riḍā’s attacks on the Umayyads see his Al-khilāfah aw’ al-imāmať al-uẓmā, pp. 44–5, 130.
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Marcel Colombe, L’Évolution de l’Égypte (Paris, 1951) pp. 171–2.
Majallať al-Azhar, XXIV (1952) pp. 137–40.
Ibid. XXVII (1956) pp. 937–41, XXVIII (1956) pp. 337–44.
For a critical study of the ideology of Iranian nationalism in the nineteenth century see Firaydūn Ādamiyyat, Andīshi-hā-yi Mīrzā Āqā Khān Kirmānī (Tehran, 1346/1967) pp. 248–68, Andīshi-hā-yi Mīrzā Fatḥ ‘Alī Ākhūnd Zādih (Tehran, 1349/1971) pp. 109–36, Andīshi-vi taraqqī va ḥukūmat dar ‘aṣr-i Sipahsālār (Tehran, 1349/1971) pp. 160–2.
Shaykh ar-Ra’īs Qājār, Ittiḥād-i Islām (Bombay, 1894) pp. 74–5.
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Murtaḍā Muṭahharī, Khidamāt-i mutaqābil-i Irān va Islām (Tehran, 1348) pp. 40–8.
Ibid. p. 77.
Ibid. pp. 83, 122.
Ibid. pp. 114–16.
On Firdawsī’s nationalism see Mujtabā Minuvī, Firdawsī va shi‘r-i ū (Tehran, 1346) pp. 29–64.
Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (New York, 1963) (hereafter cited as Arendt, Revolution) p. 23.
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H. Kabir, Science, Democracy and Islam (London, 1955) pp. 7–10.
Ibid. p. 11.
Ibid. p. 15.
Ibid. p. 18.
Aḥmad Shawqī al-Fanjarī, Al-ḥurriyyať as-sīyāsiyyah fi’l Islām (Kuwait, 1973) p.31.
Ibid. p. 34.
Ibid. pp. 47–48.
Ibid. p. 49.
Ibid. pp. 51–2.
Ibid. pp. 42–3, 124–62.
Ibid. pp. 69–80.
Ibid. pp. 50, 63, 73.
Ibid. p. 51.
Ibid. pp. 81–2.
Nadav Safran, Egypt in Search of Political Community (Cambridge, Mass., 1961) p. 217.
Ibid. pp. 220–1.
Ibid. p. 217.
Abdul-Hadi Hairi, Shī‘īsm and Constitutionalism in Iran (Leiden, 1977) p. 220. The author makes similarly critical remarks on Nā’īnī’s ideas on equality (p. 234) and separation of powers (p. 220).
Steven Lukes, Essays in Social History (London, 1977) p. 34.
Ibid. p. 41.
See Muḥammad ‘Abduh, Al-a ‘mālāl-kāmilah, edited by Muḥammad ‘Amārah (Beirut, 1972), vol. III, p. 485.
Also Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Afghānī and Muḥammad ‘Abduh, Al-‘Urwať al-wuthqā (Cairo, 1957) pp. 128–34.
Muḥammad Ḥusayn Ṭabātabā’ī, Ravābiṭ-i ijtimā‘ī dar Islam, collected and translated from his Tafsīr al-mīzān by Muḥammad Javād Ḥujjatī Kirmānī (Tehran, 1348) pp. 21–42.
Ibid. pp. 65–7.
Ibid. p. 68.
Ibid. pp. 100–2.
Ibid. pp. 69, 74.
‘Abd al-Aziz al-Badrī, Ḥukm al-Islām fi’l-ishtirākiyyah (Medina, 1966) pp. 122–5.
Ibid. pp. 142–4.
For studies on the crisis of liberalism in these countries see P. J. Vatikiotis, Modern History of Egypt, 2nd ed. (London, 1978) pp. 317–42;
R. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (Pittsburgh, 1964) pp. 33–50;
C. H. Dodd, Politics and Government in Turkey (Manchester, 1969) pp. 107–80. For Pakistan see the notes to Chapter 3.
See M. H. Kerr, ‘Emergence of a Socialist Ideology in Egypt’, Middle East Journal, XVI (Spring 1962) pp. 127–45; S. Serafy, ‘Economic Development by Revolution’, ibid, XVII (Summer 1963) pp. 215–31; Fayez Sayegh, ‘The Theoretical Structure of Nasser’s Arab Socialism’, St Antony’s Papers, Middle Eastern Affairs, no. 4 (1965) (hereafter cited as Sayegh, ‘Nasser’s Socialism’) pp. 9–56.
Sayegh, ‘Nasser’s Socialism’, pp. 27, 35, 39–41.
On Nāṣir’s attitude towards Islam as a political force, see this author’s ‘The Impact of the West on Arab Nationalism’ (Ph.D. diss., London University, 1962) pp. 276 ff.
Gamal ‘Abdul Nāṣir, The Philosophy of Revolution (Washington, 1955) pp. 88 ff.
For references, see this author’s ‘Islam and Socialism in Egypt’, Middle Eastern Studies, IV (1967–8) pp. 141–72.
‘Iṣmat Ṣayf ad-Dawlah, Usus ishtirākiyyať al-Islām (Cairo, 1965) p. 5.
Ibid. p. 9.
Ibid. p. 412.
Kamāl Raf‘at, ‘Khaṣā’iṣ al-ishtirākiyyať al-‘Arabiyyah’, in al-Akhbār (March 18, 1962).
Ṣalāh Mukhaymir and ‘Abduh Mikhā’īl Rizq, Fi’l ishtirākiyyať al-‘Arabiyyah (Cairo, 1964) pp. 110–11.
Some examples of this critical approach will be given in Chapter 5, under ‘Martyrdom’.
Ishaq Musa Husaini, The Muslim Brethren (Beirut, 1956) p. 78.
Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Syria (London, 1965) p. 180.
Muṣṭafā as-Sibā‘ī, Ishtirākiyyať al-Islām (Damascus, 1958) (hereafter cited as as-Sibā‘ī, Ishtirākiyyah) pp. 13, 115 ff., 59 ff.
Ibid. p. 17.
Ibid. pp. 17–18.
Ibid. pp. 33–4.
Ḥamdī Hāfiẓ, Al-ishtirākiyyah wa’t-taṭbīq al-ishtirākī fi’l-jumhuriyyat ’al-‘Arabiyyah (Cairo, n.d.) p. 291 (quoting a speech by Naṣīr). See also Nazīh Muḥammad aṣ-Ṣādiq al-Mahdī, Al-milkiyyah fi’n-niẓām al-ishtirākī (thesis, Cairo, n.d.) p. 39; Ma‘rūf ad-Dawālibī, Naẓarāt Islāmiyyah fi’l ishtrākiyyat al-thawriyyah (Beirut, 1955);
Aḥmad Shalabī, Al-ishtirakiyyah (Cairo, 1966) pp. 74–83;
Muḥammad Mukhtār Amīn Makram, Ḥawl al-ishtirākiyyať al-‘Arabiyyah (Cairo, 1966) pp. 35 ff.
Sibā‘ī, Ishtirākiyyah, pp. 38, 89–100.
Ibid. pp. 43–65.
Ibid. pp. 69–85.
Al-mu’tamar al-awwal li-majma‘ al-buḥūth al-Islāmī [Report of the First Congress of the Association for Islamic Research] (al-Azhar, 1964) p. 331.
Ibid. pp. 135–251.
Ibid. p. 394.
The Resolutions and Recommendations of the Second Congress of the Association for Islamic Research (Cairo, 1965).
W. C. Smith, Islam in Modern History, p. 157.
Quṭb’s two important works in this respect are: Al-‘adālať al-ijtimā‘iyyah fi’l-Islām, 6th ed. (Cairo, 1964) (hereafter cited as Quṭb, Al-‘adāla) and Ma‘ālim fi’ṭ-ṭarīq (Cairo, n.d.) (hereafter cited as Quṭb, Mā‘ālim). On the point at issue see his Al-‘adālah, p. 97.
Quṭb, Ma‘ālim, especially pp. 52 ff., 213.
Quṭb, Al‘adālah, p. 292. The same theme has been developed in Muḥammad Quṭb’s Jāhiliyyať al-qarn al-‘ishrīn (Cairo, 1964).
Qṭb, Ma‘ālim, pp. 120–41.
Ibid. pp. 1, 147 ff.
Ibid. pp. 154, 160; Quṭb, Al-‘adālah, pp. 36 ff.
Quṭb, Ma’ālim, pp. 145–6, 185–6, 192–4, 197.
Quṭb, Al-‘adālah, p. 18.
Tafsīr-i sūrah-i Anfāl, Commentary on the verse 1 of the Sūrah ‘Spoils of War’ in the Qur’ān, clandestine publication, mimeographed (Tehran?, n.d.) p. 19, also pp. 6 and 15. This, of course, has been selected as an example from many others.
Ibid. p. 19.
Mazheruddin Siddiqqi, ‘General Characteristics of Muslim Modernism’, Islamic Studies, IX (1970) pp. 33–68.
See also J. M. S. Baljon, Modern Muslim Koran Interpretation (Leiden, 1966), pp. 16 ff.
‘Alī Sharī‘atī, Dars-hā-yi Islām-shināsī, duplicated by the Islamic Students. Association of Europe, the United States and Canada (n.d.) pp. 48–50 (see also On the Sociology of Islam, lectures by ‘Alī Sharī‘atī, translated by Hamid Algar (Berkeley, 1979) pp. 82 ff.
Ibid. p. 77.
Ibid. p. 78.
Ibid. p. 89. For Sharī‘atī’s criticism of Marxism from a religious standpoint, see, inter alia, his Insān, Islām va mak tab-hā-yi maghrib zamīn (Therna, n.d.).
Sharī‘atī, Dars-hā-yi Islām-shināsī, p. 95.
Ibid. p. 87.
Sharī‘atī has replied to some of his traditionalist critics in Mīz gird, pāsukh bi su’ālāt va intiqādāt, published by Husayniyyah-i Irshād (Tehran, 1354/1975).
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© 1982 Hamid Enayat
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Enayat, H. (1982). Nationalism, democracy and socialism. In: Modern Islamic Political Thought. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-16765-4_5
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