Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Community Health Care Series ((CHCS))

Abstract

When we communicate with other people from a standpoint of individual bias, it means that we are failing to recognise the other person as the unique human being he or she is — with all the positive and negative qualities which constitute their own individual personality. Instead, we are viewing them as representative of a broader social category possessed of certain qualities which we dislike, and which we assume are shared by most or all members of that particular social group. In short, we have stereotyped the person concerned (‘he or she must be stupid’) on the basis of the category to which we have assigned them (he or she may be a nurse, but primarily ‘he or she is black’) and on to which we have projected a number of critical assumptions (such as ‘all black people are stupid’).

‘The thing with Aborigines, and this is very well known now in Australia, is that post mortems show they definitely have smaller brains than white people.’

(Author interview with Australian builder, 1997)

‘praise God for AIDS!’ AIDS is wiping out the undesirables … it’s taking out blacks by the thousands; before long it’ll completely depopulate Africa. You know they’re over there, they’re living like savages … the government says they’re equal to the white man. And I don’t believe that, there’s no way that could be possible.’

(Dave Holland, a leader of the Southern White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, cited in Ezekiel, 1995, p. 93)

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Albrecht, T., Burleson, B., and Goldsmith, D. (1994) Supportive communication. In M. Knapp and G. Miller (eds), Handbook of Interpersonal Communication, 2nd edn. London, Sage, pp. 419–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allport, G. (1954) The Nature of Prejudice. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aronson, E. (1997) The theory of cognitive dissonance. In C. McGarty and S. Haslam (eds), The Message of Social Psychology. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 20–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger, C. (1987) Communicating under uncertainty. In M. Roloff and G. Millar (eds), Interpersonal Processes: New Directions in Communications Research. London: Sage, pp. 39–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. (1984) Cultural relations in plural societies: alternatives to segregation and their sociopsychological implications, In N. Miller and M. Brewer (eds), Groups in Contact: The Psychology of Desegregation. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bobo, L. and Kluegel, J. (1991) Modern American prejudice: stereotypes, social distance, and perceptions of discrimination towards blacks, Hispanics and Asians. Paper presented at the American Sociological Association Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bostrom, R. (1990) Listening Behaviour. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. (1986) Social Psychology, 2nd edn, New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. (1988) Group Processes. London: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. (1995) Prejudice: Its Social Psychology, Oxford: Black-well.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D. (1956) Enhancement of contrast as a composite habit. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53, pp. 350–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cialdini, R. (1993) Influence: Science and Practice, 3rd edn. New York: HarperCollins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornell, J. (1994) Prejudice reduction through inter-group contact in Northern Ireland: a social-psychological critique, Conflict Quarterly, 14, pp. 30–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J. and Oleson, K. (1994) Introduction to research on interpersonal expectations. In P. Blanck (ed.), Interpersonal Expectations: Theory, Research and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 45–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J. and Fazio, R. (1980) Expectancy confirmation processes arising in the social interaction sequence. American Psychologist, 35, pp. 867–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawes, R. (1994) House of Cards: Psychology and Psychotherapy Built on Myth. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickson, D. (1997) Reflecting. In O. Hargie (ed.), The Handbook of Communication Skills. London: Routledge, pp. 159–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickson, D., Saunders, C. and Stringer, M. (1993) Rewarding People: The Skill of Responding Positively. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dollard, J., Doob, L., Miller, N., Mowrer, O. and Sears, R. (1939) Frustration and Aggression. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Donohue, W. and Kolt, R. (1992) Managing Interpersonal Conflict. London: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, J. (1985) After the bus arrives: resegregation in desegregated schools, Journal of Social Issues, 46, pp. 183–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ezekiel, R. (1995) The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen. London: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. (1957) A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Evanston, Ill.: Row & Peterson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gudykunst, W. (1994) Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communication. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurr, T. (1970) Why Men Rebel. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, D. (1979) A cognitive attributional analysis of stereotyping. In L. Berkowitz (ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 12, New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, D. and Bishop, G. (1976) Attitudinal and behavioral effects of initial integration of white suburban neighbourhoods. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32, pp. 47–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hargie, C. and Tourish, D. (1997) Relational communication. In O. Hargie (ed.), The Handbook of Communication Skills, 2nd edn, London: Routledge, pp. 358–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hargie, O. (1992) Communication: Beyond the Cross-roads. Monograph, University of Ulster, Newtownabbey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson-King, E. and Nisbett, R. (1996) Anti-black prejudice as a function of exposure to the negative behaviour of single black persons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, pp. 654–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hovland, C. and Sears, R. (1940) Minor studies in aggression. VI: Correlation of lynchings with economic indices. Journal of Psychology, 9, pp. 301–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, J., Platow, M., Howard, M. and Stringer, M. (1996) Social identity and inter-group evaluative bias: realistic categories and domain specific self-esteem in a conflict setting. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, pp. 631–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inman, M. and Baron, R. (1996) Influence of prototypes on perceptions of prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, pp. 727–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, E. (1990) Interpersonal Perception. New York: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kagan, C, Evans, J. and Kay, B. (1986) A Manual of Interpersonal Skills for Nurses: An Experiential Approach. London: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langer. E. and Abelson, R. (1974) A patient by any other name...: clinician group differences in labeling bias. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, pp. 4–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leyens, J., Yzerbt, V. and Schadron, G. (1994) Stereotypes and Social Cognition, London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • McArthur, L. (1980) Illusory causation and illusory correlation: two epistemological accounts. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6, pp. 507–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, N. and Bugelski, R. (1948) Minor studies in aggression: the influence of frustrations imposed by the in-group on attitudes toward out-groups. Journal of Psychology, 25, pp. 437–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettigrew, T. and Meertens, R. (1995) Subtle and blatant prejudice in Western Europe. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25, pp. 57–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillipson, C. (1982) Capitalism and the Construction of Old Age. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powers, D. and Ellison, C. (1995) Interracial contact and black racial attitudes: the contact hypothesis and selectivity bias. Social Forces, 74, pp. 205–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheflin, A. and Opton, E. (1978) The Mind Manipulators. New York, Paddington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. (1975) Helplessness. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherif, M., Harvey, O., White, B., Hood, W. and Sherif, C. (1961) Inter group Conflict and Co-operation: The Robber’s Cave Experiment. New York: Octagon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E. and Mackie, D. (1997) Integrating the psychological and the social to understand human behaviour, In C. McGarty and S. Haslam (eds.), The Message of Social Psychology, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 305–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smyth, M. and Campbell, J. (1996) Social work, sectarianism and anti-sectarian practice in Northern Ireland. British Journal of Social Work, 26, pp. 77–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stagner, R. and Congdon, C. (1955) Another failure to demonstrate displacement of aggression. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, pp. 695–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephan, W. and Rosenfeld, D. (1978) Effects of desegregation on racial attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, pp. 795–804.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stouffer, S., Suckman, E., DeVinney, L., Star, S. and Williams, R. (1949) The American Soldier: Adjustment During Army Life, vol. 1. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, S. (1992) Irrationality: The Enemy Within. London: Constable.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. (1986) The social identity theory of inter-group behaviour. In S. Worchel and W. Austin (eds), Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chicago, Ill.: Nelson, pp. 7–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, M. (1994) Expectancies and the perpetuation of racial inequity. In P. Blanck (ed.), Interpersonal Expectations: Theory, Research and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 88–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, L. (1988) Images of Ageing. In S. Wright (ed.), Nursing the Older Patient. Cambridge: Harper & Row, pp. 9–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, J., Harris, M., Volkan, V. and Edwards, B. (1995) The psychology of Western European neo-racism, International Journal on Group Rights, 3, pp. 1–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tourish, D. and Mulholland, J. (1997) Communication between nurses and nurse managers: a case study from an NHS Trust. Journal of Nursing Management, 5, pp. 25–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vanneman, R. and Pettigrew, T. (1972) Race and relative deprivation in the urban United States. Race, 13, pp. 461–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venkatesan, M. (1966) Experimental study of consumer behaviour, conformity and independence. Journal of Marketing Research, 3, pp. 384–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whetten, D. and Cameron, K. (1991) Developing Management Skills, 2nd edn. New York: HarperCollins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willmot, W. (1995) Relational Communication. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilner, D., Walkley, R. and Cook, S. (1952) Residential proximity and inter-group relations in public housing projects. Journal of Social Issues, 8, pp. 45–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, T. (1996) Compliments will get you nowhere: benign stereotypes, prejudice and anti-semetism. Sociological Quarterly, 37, pp. 465–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, C. and Spencer, S. (1996) Stereotypes and prejudice: their overt and subtle influence in the classroom. American Behavioral Scientist, 40, pp. 176–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worchel, S., Cooper, J. and Goethals, G. (1988) Understanding Social Psychology, 4th edn. Chicago, Ill.: Dorsey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zander, A., Stotland, E. and Wolfe, D. (1960) Unity of group, identification with group, and self esteem of members. Journal of Personality, 28, pp. 463–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zebrowitz, L. (1990) Social Perception, Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Copyright information

© 1999 Dennis Tourish

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Tourish, D. (1999). Communicating Beyond Individual Bias. In: Long, A. (eds) Interaction for Practice in Community Nursing. Community Health Care Series. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-14757-1_8

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-14757-1_8

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-333-72779-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-349-14757-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics