Abstract
This chapter will argue that in the evolution of theoretical analysis of the process of integration, theory has followed events. As the historical division between economics and defense evolved in the first decade after the end of the war, so too was this division replicated in the literature and academic study. Much of the ‘theory of integration’ has been post-hoc rationalization of the process itself and therefore largely unable to anticipate changes in the larger structure of political interaction, particularly at the level of security relations.
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Notes
Federalism is discussed here as a composite of the proliferation of plans for federal union which came out of the European Federalist Movement. For a discussion of the genesis of federalism see: Michael Burgess, Federalism and European Union: Political Ideas, Influences, and Strategies in the European Community, 1972–1987 (London: Routledge, 1989); Walter Lipgens, ed., Documents on the History of European Integration, vol. 1 (Berlin: de Gruyter for European University Institute, 1985); Richard May ne, John Pinder, and John Roberts, Federal Union: the Pioneers (London: Macmillan, 1990).
The definitive exposition of functionalism is David Mitrany, A Working Peace System: An Argument for the Functional Development of International Organizations (London: RIIA, 1943); idem, The Functional Theory of Politics (London: Martin Robinson, 1975).
Deutsch and co-authors’ empirical study of integration focused on the transatlantic community and its prospects for integration as opposed to strictly European integration represented by the European Community. Although we here seek to examine indigenous European cooperation in security affairs, as we have seen this topic has been integrally connected to larger transatlantic issues. Karl Deutsch et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience (New York: Greenwood Press, 1957).
Deutsch’s emphasis on community is similar to Hedley Bull’s international society within an anarchical society. Deutsch adds an emphasis on transaction and communication networks in building and maintaining communities. See Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society (New York: Colombia University Press, 1977).
Charles Pentland, International Theory and European Integration (London: Faber & Faber, 1971), 47.
Like all influential theories, neofunctionalism is a broad approach. It would require an entire volume to analyze its various branches. Core concepts among its advocates will be presented here but for an exhaustive account of its evolution see: Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe: Political, Economic, and Social Forces, 1950–1957 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958); Beyond the Nation-State: Functionalism and International Organi-zation (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964); Leon Lindberg and Stuart Scheingold, Europe’s Would-Be Polity: Patterns of Change in the European Community (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1970); Regional Integration: Theory and Research (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970); Philippe Schmitter, ‘Three Neofunctional Hypotheses about International Integration’, International Organization 23, no.1 (1969).
Max Beloff defined supranationalism as ‘that there is a recognized interest within a political grouping of several nations which is different from, or distinguishable from, the interests of any one of them and which thus claims institutional expression.’ (Cited in Carol Ann Cosgrove and Kenneth Twitchett, eds, The New International Actors [London: Macmillan, 1970], 95).
‘The “Community Method” involves, essentially, a continuing dialogue between, on the one hand, a Commission charged not only with the execution of Community policy and the safeguarding of the Treaty’s requirements but also with the initiation and proposal of policy, and, on the other hand, a Council of Ministers representing the national viewpoints in which majority voting is to emerge over time, even on major issues.’ (Pentland, 134). See also Paul Taylor, ‘The Concept of Community and the European Integration Process,’ Journal of Common Market Studies 7, no. 2, (1968): 92–3.
Ernst Haas, ‘International Integration: the European and the Universal Process’, in Dale Hekuis, C. G. Mclintock, and Arthur Burns, eds, International Stability (New York: Wiley, 1964), 231.
Ernst Haas and Philippe Schmitter, ‘Economics and Differential Patterns of Political Integration: Projects about Unity in Latin America’, in W. P. Davidson, ed., International Political Communities (New York: Praeger, 1966), 261.
John Pinder, ‘Positive and Negative Integration: Some Problems of Economic Union in the EEC’, World Today 23, no. 3 (1968).
Stanley Hoffmann, ‘Discord in Community: The North Atlantic Area as a Partial International System’, International Organization, 17 (1963); idem, ‘Europe’s Identity Crisis: Between the Past and America’, Daedalus 93, no. 4 (1964); idem, ‘Obstinate or Obsolete: the Fate of the Nation-state and the Case of Western Europe,’ Daedalus 95, no. 3 (1966).
‘Economic unification still tells us little or nothing about political and military unity.’ (Hoffmann, Identity, 1289).
Ibid., 1275.
‘America has been the social model and political leader. It is time for students to emancipate themselves — which means transcending both servility and defiance, the two forms of slavish behaviour. For identity can be found in neither. It can be found in separateness.’ (Emphasis in original: ibid., 1295). As we shall see in the next chapter, the renewed debate about EC security policy in the 1980s was exactly about this tension between European ‘identity’ and mere anti-American ‘defiance’.
Ibid., 1261.
Ibid., 1274.
The perceived failure of neofunctional analysis led to the renouncement of the entire research effort by its principal advocate. Haas’s swansong called for fellow scholars to abstain from European integration and to focus on the larger issue of global interdependence. See Ernst Haas, The Obsolescence of Regional Integration Theory, research series, no.25 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); idem, ‘Turbulent Fields and the Theory of Regional Integration’, International Organization, 30, no. 2 (1976). As we shall see in Chapter 5, neofunctionalism was revived as a result of the Single European Act.
For a discussion of the genesis of interdependence theory from neofunctionalism see Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, ‘International Interdependence and Integration’, in Fred Greenstein and Nelson Polsby, eds, Handbook of Political Science, vol. 8 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975); idem, Power and Interdependence, 2nd edn (Boston: Scott, Foresman, 1989).
François Duchêne, ‘Europe’s Role in World Peace’, in Richard Mayne, ed., Europe Tomorrow: Sixteen Europeans Look Ahead (London: Fontana/Collins, 1973), 43. See also idem, ‘The European Community and the Uncertainties of Interdependence’, in M. Kohnstam and W. Hager, eds, A Nation Writ Large? Foreign Policy Problems before the European Community (London: Macmillan, 1973).
See Hedley Bull, Civilian Power: a “Contradiction in Terms?” Journal of Common Market Studies 21, no. 2/3 (1982).
The relationship between classical realism and contemporary neorealism is well documented in the core texts of the neorealist approach. See Kenneth Waltz, Man, the State, and War (New York: Colombia University Press, 1959); idem, Theory of International Politics (Boston: Addison-Wesley, 1979). Anarchy is accepted to mean simply the absence of centralized legal and coercive authority at any level above the nation-state.
For a discussion of balance-of-power and alliance theories which flow from neorealist analysis see Steven Walt, ‘Alliance Formation and the Balance of World Power’, International Security 9, no. 4 (1985).
The main exception to this is Joseph Grieco, Cooperation Among Nations: Europe, America, and Non-tariff Barriers to Trade (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).
Reinhardt Rummel and Peter Schmidt, ‘The Changing Security Frame-work’, in William Wallace, ed., The Dynamics of European Integration (London: Pinter for RIIA, 1990), 261.
EPC was seen as a way for national foreign ministries to act as ‘gate-keepers’ between national policy-making and West European cooperation. See David Allen and William Wallace, ‘EPC: the Historical and Contemporary Background’, in D. Allen, R. Rummel and W. Wessels, EPC: Towards a Foreign Policy for Western Europe (Toronto: Butterworth, 1982).
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© 1997 Andrew Wyatt-Walter
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Wyatt-Walter, H. (1997). The Theoretical Relationship between Integration and Security. In: The European Community and the Security Dilemma, 1979–92. St Antony’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-14245-3_3
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