Institutions of Control, Institutions Beyond Control

Abstract

While both the cases I have discussed so far involve Chinese religion, the general processes are neither necessarily Chinese nor necessarily religious. Under the right circumstances anywhere, meaning develops a life cycle of its own. Tumultuous times encourage a profusion of new and complex possibilities that elbow their way in among the old taken-for-granted ideas. Both the early God Worshipers and the Taiwanese ghost cult took part in this process, as did the many cases of non-Chinese spirit possession I have already discussed. So did the Virgin of Guadalupe, symbol of Mexican independence, with her Aztec moon and cloak of roses (Wolf, 1958). And so did Yankee Doodle, who changed from the boorish object of British jeering to a revolutionary symbol. The resulting intertwined profusion of meaning has a strong potential to resist — to foster an interpretation that opposes the status quo — but also harbors many other possible developments.