Introduction

Abstract

Over the years the principal concern of the United Nations in the field of human rights has been establishing standards for specific rights which meet the legal requirement of clarity and precision and the political requirement of acceptability, for a substantial majority of the very mixed bag of states which constitute the United Nations. In December 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted by 45 votes to nil, with eight abstentions, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Though the Declaration is not a binding instrument of international law it is wisely regarded as an authoritative statement of principles to which all nations should adhere. It was accepted at the time that the principles declared needed further elaboration and refinement in instruments laying down specific obligations which signatory states would bind themselves to fulfil. The upshot was the unanimous adoption in 1966 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICES) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICPR) by the General Assembly. The distinctive feature of the two Covenants, and the main reason for their long gestation period, was the incorporation of limited provisions designed to secure implementation of the obligations assumed by ratifying parties.